li  ill;  :|ii!  hills 


LIBRARY 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

SANTA  BARBARA 


PRESENTED  BY 

ALMA  WILLIAMS 
UCSB 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF 
THE  SCHOOL 


BY 

FRANCES   M.  MOREHOUSE 

SUPERVISOR  OF  HIGH  SCHOOL  TEACHING 
ILLINOIS    STATE    NORMAL    UNIVERSITY 


WITH  INTRODUCTION 

BY 
LOTUS  D.  COFFMAN,  Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR  OF  EDUCATION 
UNIVERSITY     OF     ILLINOIS 


D.   C.   HEATH  &  CO.,   PUBLISHERS 

BOSTON        NEW  YORK        CHICAGO 


Copyright,  1914, 
By  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

lES 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFC 
SAiNTA  BARBARA 


TO  HIM  WHOSE  FAITH  IN  ME 

MAKES  THIS  AND  ALL  OTHER  WORK 

I  MAY  BE  GRANTED  TO  DO 

A  SLIGHT  TRIBUTE: 

MY  FATHER 


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in  2007  witii  funding  from 

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AUTHOR'S   FOREWORD 

It  was  not  the  daring  of  my  own  spirit  which  first  conceived 
the  idea  of  practically  denying  an  old  pedagogic  maxim  which 
says  that,  given  lessons  well  taught,  the  order  of  a  school 
will  take  care  of  itself.  Neither  was  I  the  first  to  gainsay 
the  truth  of  the  cheerful  superstition  that  no  specific  help 
upon  questions  of  discipline  may  be  given  a  teacher;  that 
each  situation,  as  it  presents  itself,  must  be  met  in  the  light 
of  certain  general  principles  which  are  doubtless  very  sound, 
but  which  do  not  always  readily  come  to  mind  in  the  nick 
of  time.  Nevertheless  these  new  doctrines  met  a  ready 
response  from  one  to  whom  experience  and  observation  have 
combined  to  show  that  the  management  of  behavior  is  in 
itself  a  definite  phase  of  school  work,  and  a  definite  problem 
to  be  solved;  and  that  fairly  concrete  means  of  achieving 
good  results  may  be  passed  from  one  teacher  to  another,  as 
truly  as  a  concrete  manner  of  teaching  a  geography  lesson 
may  be  taught  one  teacher  by  another. 

The  first  chapters  of  this  book  deal  with  the  general  as- 
pects of  the  situation,  and  with  the  theory  of  discipline.  The 
lattfer  chapters  take  up  the  concrete  problems  of  school  life 
and  offer  suggestions  for  their  solution.  A  constant  effort 
has  been  made  to  keep  the  subject  matter  practical,  suggest- 
ive, helpful.  At  the  same  time,  there  has  been  no  attempt 
to  evade  the  necessity  for  real  thought,  for  thorough  analysis, 
and  for  that  grasp  of  the  big  plan  without  which  no  teacher 
can  really  succeed  as  a  disciplinarian.  An  illimainating  con- 
ception of  the  social  organization  not  only  of  the  school,  but 
of  the  world,  underlies  the  new  discipline,  which  errs  neither 
on  the  side  of  that  soft  pedagogy  which  ignores  social  obliga- 


vi  AUTHOR'S   FOREWORD 

tion,  nor  with  the  older  blind  severity  which  denied  social 
advantages.  It  is  inexorable,  sure  of  its  authority,  and  sternly 
firm;  but  it  recognizes  the  right  of  self-government  which 
comes  as  the  reward  of  trustworthiness,  and  the  joy  that 
comes  from  happy  cooperation.  It  is  this  conception  of  the 
nature  of  school  management  and  discipline,  applied  to  cases 
which  most  teachers  know  by  heart,  which  forms  the  subject 
of  this  book. 

So  many  people  have  helped  in  the  making  of  the  book, 
that  it  is  quite  impossible  to  make  adequate  acknowledg- 
ment of  my  debts  to  them.  But  I  wish  especially  to  thank 
Dr.  L.  D.  Coffman,  at  whose  suggestion  the  work  was  under- 
taken, for  helpful  criticism  and  encouragement.  A  nmnber 
of  people  have  given  time  and  thought  to  the  answering  of 
questions  bearing  upon  their  experience  and  knowledge  of 
school  affairs,  notably  Miss  SaUie  H,  Webb  of  Cincinnati, 
the  late  William  J.  Morrison  of  Brooklyn,  and  Miss  Kate 
Smith  of  Los  Angeles.  To  Miss  Charlotte  Reichmann  I  am 
especially  indebted  for  hearty  and  helpful  cooperation  in 
translating  German  treatises  and  in  criticizing  and  proof- 
reading. Several  of  my  colleagues  in  the  Training  School  of 
the  Illinois  State  Normal  University,  notably  Miss  Lora 
Dexheimer  and  Mr.  Edwin  A.  Turner,  have  given  me  helpful 
suggestions.  Two  of  the  chapters  have  appeared  in  The 
American  Schoolmaster.  To  others  I  have  given  due  credit 
in  the  body  of  the  text. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Introduction    xiii 

I.  The  Place  and  Work  of  the  School  in  Modern 

Life i 

The  functions  of  the  school;  its  relations  to  other  institu- 
tions; the  source  of  its  authority;  the  school  and  parents. 

n.  The  Modes  of  School  Government 13 

Different  modes  are  the  result  of  our  complicated  relations. 

I.  The  mode  of  Absolute  Authority  —  its  origin;  its 
weakness;  cases  in  which  it  may  be  used;  types  of  pupils 
with  whom  it  should  be  used;  the  merging  of  imposed 
authority  into  voluntarily  accepted  authority. 

n.  The  mode  of  Appeal  to  Personal  Interest  —  the  use  of 
incentives;  ideals  of  self-advancement;  its  use  with 
adolescents;  its  effect  upon  the  curriculum;  its  effect 
upon  the  choice  of  studies  and  of  conduct;  the  danger 
of  this  mode, 

m.  The  mode  of  Control  through  Personal  Influence  — 
its  power;  its  temptation  to  the  teacher;  use  and  exer- 
cise of  personal  influence;  the  process  of  socialization;  of 
generalization;  its  use  in  the  High  School. 

m.  The   Modes   of   School   Government  —  con- 
tinued        35 

IV.  The  mode  of  Wholesome  Repletion  —  the  impenetra- 
bility of  attention  and  interest;  busywork;  motivation  of 
studies.  This  mode  in  the  high  school  —  two  kinds 
of  organization;  the  interests  of  adolescents;  reasons  for 
the  failure  of  this  mode;  high  school  fraternities; 
interest  as  a  basis  for  organization;  the  nature  of  or- 
ganizations; means  of  realizing  these  characteristics; 
some  of  the  interests  utilized;  manner  of  administration. 


viii  CONTENTS 

The  psychology  of  this  mode  —  its  use  of  ceremony;  of 
intellectual  stimuli;  of  emotional  stimuli;  of  ambition; 
of  the  instinct  for  leadership. 

IV.  The  Modes  of  School  Government  —  continued      53 

V.  The  mode  of  Appeal  to  Social  Consciousness  — 
making  the  social  relation  conscious;  rewards  and  pimish- 
ments  for  social  and  unsocial  conduct;  principles  govern- 
ing social  conduct. 

Special  forms  of  school  government  founded  upon  the 
mode  of  Social  Consciousness  —  self-government  as 
an  ideal;  systems  aiming  to  help  establish  self-govern- 
ment; the  four  types  of  pupil-government  plans,  with 
examples;  arguments  for  and  against  such  schemes. 

V.  Recent  Developments  in  American  Life  as 

They  Affect  the  Question  of  School  Dis- 
cipline        74 

The  motive  for  the  inquiry;  feminization;  interest  in 
school  work;  two  sides  to  toleration;  democracy  and 
its  effect;  the  cultural  ideal;  the  passing  of  the  bully. 

VI.  The  Prescription  of  Disciplinary  Activities      81 

The  question  of  formal  discipline;  the  position  accepted 
as  a  basis  in  these  pages;  definition  of  terms;  pre- 
scription of  habits,  mental  training,  and  social  aims.  The 
crystallization  of  race  experience  in  prescription;  the 
present  revolt;  what  teachers  may  do  to  efiEect  a  recon- 
ciUation;  the  object  of  prescription;  its  appUcation; 
its  outcomes. 

Vn.  The  Disciplinary  Process 92 

Definition  of  the  word  "discipUne";  an  adequate  con- 
ception of  the  phases  of  discipUne;  the  ideal  in  the 
teacher's  mind;  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils;  establish- 
ing the  ideal  by  assimiption,  by  definition  and  clarifi- 
cation, by  correlation,  and  by  illustration.  Realization 
of  the  ideal  by  cooperation  of  teacher  and  pupils,  by 
habits  founded  upon  instincts  wisely  adapted,  by  the 
development  of  judgment. 


CONTENTS  ix 

Vm.  The  Spirit  op  the  School 109 

Elements  in  determining  this  spirit  in  teachers;  in  pupils; 
the  school  environment  as  a  factor;  its  characteristics; 
the  practicabihty  of  having  a  good  spirit;  means  of 
during  it;  by  kindness,  by  industry,  by  obedience,  by 
joy,  by  school  unity. 

IX.  An  Analysis  of  Offenses  Common  in  American 

Schools 121 

The  basis  of  classification;  offenses  of  misdirected  energy 
—  whispering,  note-writing,  school  mischief  of  many 
kinds.  Offenses  rising  from  a  resentful  resistance  to  im- 
posed control  —  disobedience  and  truancy,  deUberate 
annoyance  of  teachers.  Offenses  due  to  physical  con- 
ditions, both  in  the  environment  and  in  the  pupils  them- 
selves —  bad  results  of  wrong  temperature,  bad  air,  poor 
light,  dirt,  poor  equipment.  Obscenity,  lack  of  atten- 
tion, indifference.  Offenses  due  to  untrained  moral  judg- 
ment and  perverted  ideals  —  influence  of  the  commimity; 
fighting,  shielding  evil-doers,  lying,  stealing,  cheating, 
gaming.  Offenses  of  sensationalism  —  bad  odors,  animals 
in  school,  ingenious  misdeeds,  misleading  appearances. 
Offenses  of  imitation  —  impudence  and  defiance,  law- 
lessness, ridicule,  profanity  and  obscenity,  hazing,  strikes 
and  walkouts,  fraternities,  tobacco,  alcohol  and  drugs. 
Offenses  due  to  untrained  manners  —  vandaUsm,  im- 
pudence, horseplay. 

X.  Punishment 163 

Its  justification.  The  motives  for  punishment  —  retalia- 
tion, expiation,  prevention,  reformation.  Individualiza- 
tion of  pimishment;  term  as  used  by  criminologists; 
another  interpretation;  when  not  to  punish.  Imme- 
diate and  delayed  consequences;  advantages  of  each;  age 
as  a  factor  in  the  decision;  the  nature  of  the  offense  as 
a  factor;  certainty  as  a  factor. 

XI.  Punishment  —  continued 178 

Undesirable  punishments  —  threats,  tasks,  detention, 
taking  away  earned  marks,  personal  indignities,  satura- 
tion, the  "appropriate  pimishment,"  sarcasm  and  ridi- 


X  CONTENTS 

cule.  Justifiable  punishments  —  isolation,  reports  to 
parents,  socialization  of  penalties,  deprivation  of  privi- 
lege, restitution,  suspension,  expulsion.  Corporal  pun- 
ishment—  justification,  methods,  and  substitutes;  ap- 
peal to  higher  authority,  and  moral  suasion;  tongue 
lashing. 

Xn.  Disciplinary  Devices 210 

Preventive  devices  founded  upon  the  mode  of  Absolute 
Authority  —  The  importance  of  prevision  and  provision; 
the  school's  conception  of  the  teacher's  position;  the 
teacher's  benevolent  despotism;  pedagogical  coopera- 
tion; doing  away  with  bad  influences. 

Preventive  devices  founded  upon  the  mode  of  Personal 
Influence  —  Pleasing  the  teacher  —  the  emotionalization 
of  ideals;  teaching  ethics  systematically;  strengthen- 
ing the  personality  of  the  teacher  —  the  lesson  of  the 
parochial  school;  elements  of  strength  in  teachers;  the 
voice;  types  of  teachers  who  fail. 

Preventive  devices  foimded  upon  the  mode  of  Wholesome 
Repletion  —  Three  sets  of  extra-curricular  activities; 
pupil-oflScers  and  their  duties;  recreation  time;  home 
time.  The  fundamental  problem  of  interest;  a  ques- 
tion-begging substitute;  the  element  of  fatigue;  reasons 
for  failing  interest;  lack  of  interest  is  no  excuse  for 
failure. 

XTTT.  Disciplinary  Devices  —  continued 233 

Corrective  devices  founded  upon  the  mode  of  Absolute 
Authority  —  For  undue  absence  from  the  room;  for 
whispering;  library  rules  as  a  standard;  wilful  inatten- 
tion; impertinence;  the  complaint  book;  the  pupil's 
record  book;  the  benefit  of  system.    Rules. 

XIV.  Disciplinary  Devices  —  continued 249 

Corrective  devices  founded  upon  the  mode  of  Personal  In- 
fluence— Judge  Lindsey's  work  as  an  example;  reminders; 
the  parole  system;  motivating  good  conduct;  negative 
incentives;  the  appraisal  of  conduct;  trusting  pupils;  and 
training  the  public. 


CONTENTS  3d 

Devices  foimded  upon  the  appeal  to  Personal  Interest  — 
Prize-giving;  a  classification  of  incentives;  preeminence, 
privileges,  holidays,  excuse  from  examinations,  charac- 
ter-development. 

XV.  Disciplinary  Devices  —  continued 268 

Devices  foimded  upon  the  mode  of  Conscious  Social  Ap>- 
peal  —  Class  loyalty  and  its  extension;  school  charac- 
ter; means  of  imification.  PupU-govemment;  distin- 
guished from  self-government;  as  an  extension  of  the 
monitorial  system;  its  good  points;  cautions  with  regard 
to  pupil-government;  the  ideal  of  service.  Morning 
exercises;  an  outgrowth  of  daily  work;  devotions;  gen- 
eral participation. 

XVI.  The  Supervision  of  Discipline 285 

The  selection  of  able  teachers,  and  their  improvement  in 
service.  The  supervisor's  duty  to  weak  teachers;  ana- 
lyzing the  situation;  giving  the  ideal;  finding  the  cause 
of  trouble;  the  analysis  of  motive;  first  aid  to  teachers. 
Strengthening  the  will;  the  detection  of  signs  of  mis- 
chief; the  value  of  good  routine;  making  requirements 
clear;  utilizing  the  system;  utilizing  experience.  Sug- 
gestions for  classroom  management.  The  supervisor  in 
the  community. 


Appendices 

I.  A  Classified  Bibliography   305 

n.  Questions  for  Study 312 

III.   Blank  Fonns  for  Use  in  Securing  and  Maintaining 

Good  Order 327 

Index 341 


INTRODUCTION 

The  most  important  cause  of  teacher  mortality  is 
weakness  in  discipline.  It  is  responsible  for  approxi- 
mately twenty  out  of  every  one  hundred  failures.  Al- 
though this  fact  has  been  recognized  for  many  years 
there  has  not  heretofore  been  any  attempt  to  formulate 
the  principles  underlying  this  important  phase  of  a 
teacher's  work.  Tradition  and  the  exigencies  of  the 
situation  have  furnished  teachers  their  criteria  for  dis- 
posing of  disciplinary  cases.  The  unsupervised  appli- 
cation of  such  criteria  has  ofttimes  been  the  only  way 
by  which  young  teachers  could  discover  their  futiHty. 
Although  much  of  our  progress  in  teaching  has  been 
made  by  ''cut  and  try"  methods  they  are,  neverthe- 
less, the  most  expensive  methods  that  teachers  can 
employ.  Certainly  nothing  will  pay  larger  dividends  in 
the  field  of  school  economy  than  an  interpretation  of  the 
experiences  of  successful  teachers  relating  to  discipUne. 

There  are  no  changes  in  the  field  of  education  more 
striking  than  those  that  have  been  occurring  in  the 
field  of  school  discipline.  At  one  time  there  was  an 
effort  to  adjust  disciplinary  affairs  mathematically; 
the  offender  was  punished  to  the  extent  that  he  had 
caused  suffering;  an  equation  was  struck  between  the 
guilt  and  the  suffering,  and  thus  an  indemnity  was 
secured  for  past  conduct.     An  exact  agreement  be- 


xiv  INTRODUCTION 

tween  the  punishment  and  the  offense  is  not  always 
obvious,  nor  can  it  always  be  established.  Moreover, 
the  view  point  of  this  primitive  notion  of  punishment 
is  wrong,  for  it  stresses  the  crime  or  offense  but  over- 
looks the  character  of  the  offender;  the  attention  of 
the  one  inflicting  the  punishment  is  turned  to  the  past, 
never  to  the  future. 

Somewhat  later  human  ingenuity  was  exercised  to 
its  utmost  in  devising  forms  of  punishment  for  in- 
timidating and  deterring  others;  but  penalty  as  a 
deterrent,  in  the  opinion  of  the  criminologist  and 
penologist  of  this  and  other  countries  and  in  the  opinion 
of  wise  teachers,  has  not  succeeded  in  making  good 
its  claim.  It  is  not  the  laws  upon  the  statute  books, 
the  rules  of  the  school,  or  the  occasioned  visitation  of 
harsh  punishment,  but  the  certainty  of  punishment  that 
deters  others  from  violating  the  law. 

Punishment  as  a  deterrent  has  been,  and  no  doubt 
still  is,  resorted  to  in  some  schools.  For  evidence  one 
only  needs  to  refer  to  the  historic  dunce-cap,  to  making 
children  toe  a  mark,  requiring  them  to  stand  upon 
some  unstable  elevation,  to  sit  with  a  pencil  or  stick 
beneath  their  tongues  for  whispering,  or  to  the  public 
administering  of  corporal  punishment.  Fortunately  all 
sane  educators  are  unanimously  desirous  of  getting  rid 
of  these  inane  practices. 

There  are,  however,  certain  evidences  of  the  in- 
quisitional age  that  have  shown  signs  of  persisting. 
Worse  perhaps  than  pubUc  disgrace,  "saturation,"  and 
tasks,  all  of  which  are  mediaeval  in  origin,  is  the  pub- 
lic use  of  vituperation.  Such  opprobrious  epithets  as 
"loafer"  "numskull,"  "fool,"  and  the  like,  are  more 


INTRODUCTION  xv 

than  inelegant;  they  are  calculated  to  antagonize  the 
child  or  to  break  his  self-respect. 

The  chief  weakness  of  the  doctrine  of  repression  was 
that  it  wholly  disregarded  the  worth  of  the  individual. 
Repression  of  dangerous  and  instinctive  evil  tendencies, 
inherited  from  the  race,  will  always  be  necessary  for 
the  fruition  of  a  beautiful  character,  but  repression  as  a 
means  of  public  disgrace  will  seldom  produce  positive 
qualities  of  character  or  be  successful  in  preventing 
others  from  committing  similar  offenses. 

The  inadequacy  and  barbarity  of  these  earlier 
methods  began  to  dawn  upon  sensible  people  and  atten- 
tion was  centered  more  and  more  upon  the  individual. 
It  was  recognized  that  the  guilty  are  not  all  irredeem- 
able, that  reformation,  except  in  extreme  cases,  is  far 
better  than  incapacitation.  The  rehabilitation  of  the 
individual  became  the  goal  of  action. 

Naturally  it  was  but  a  step  from  this  to  the  notion 
that  the  way  to  prevent  trouble  is  to  stop  the  operation 
of  those  causes  which  permit  the  origination  of  the 
impulse,  its  gratification,  and  its  spread  by  contagion 
of  sympathy.  This  point  of  view  has  been  responsible 
partly  for  the  liberalizing  of  the  course  of  study,  the 
improving  of  methods  of  instruction,  and  the  enrich- 
ment of  the  school  libraries.  Perhaps  the  recognition 
of  the  value  and  necessity  of  promoting  and  supervising 
the  numerous  activities  that  children  more  or  less 
spontaneously  engage  in,  was  the  most  important 
outcome  of  this  point  of  view.  The  clubs,  parties, 
entertainments,  and  games  of  young  people,  even  when 
not  subject  to  supervision,  are  powerful  disciplinary 
agencies.     For  a  child  to  be  chosen  or  not  to  be  chosen, 


xvi  INTRODUCTION 

to  be  invited  or  not  to  be  invited,  to  act  as  a  leader  or 
as  a  follower,  teaches  him  to  respect  authority.  But 
when  under  the  guidance  of  a  wise  teacher,  the  social 
activities  are  made  to  conform  to  established  usage, 
the  individual  engaging  in  them,  learns  not  only  to 
respect  authority  but  to  appreciate  certain  important 
refinements  of  justice.  Those  teachers  who  are  the 
successful  leaders  of  their  pupils  and  their  communities, 
consider  it  a  part  of  their  legitimate  function  to  see 
that  the  social  activities  of  both  are  kept  upon  a  high 
plane  and  are  distinctively  educative  in  character. 

Perhaps  the  best  preventive  measures  in  a  school 
are  good  organization  and  excellent  instruction.  Much 
of  the  organization  of  a  school  may  be  attended  to 
before  the  school  actually  opens.  All  the  more  or 
less  mechanical  and  routine  matters,  such  as  the 
program,  the  seating  of  the  pupils,  the  monitorial 
system,  the  plan  of  government,  and  the  like,  if  prop- 
erly provided  for  before  the  opening  day,  wiU  serve 
from  the  outset  as  powerful  hindrances  to  questionable 
conduct.  By  the  "plan  of  government"  I  do  not 
have  reference  to  the  making  of  rules.  Whenever 
rules  are  made  uniformity  of  discipline  becomes  a 
principle  of  the  school.  This  is  not  always  desirable. 
To  have  a  fixed  and  definite  punishment  for  all  ofi'end- 
ers  or  for  all  of  a  kind,  will  eventually  compromise  the 
disciplinarian.  There  must  be  moderation  in  some 
cases  and  constraint  in  others. 

Lucidity  of  instruction,  perhaps  the  greatest  pre- 
ventive agency  of  bad  conduct,  depends  upon  the 
personal  quahties  of  the  teacher,  his  tact,  sympathy, 
disposition,  knowledge,  and  command  of  the  tech- 


INTRODUCTION  xvii 

nique  of  teaching.  The  amelioration  of  discipline  is 
due  not  only  to  better  teaching  but  to  better  build- 
ings, better  libraries,  and  better  school  equipment. 
The  relation  of  these  factors  to  the  problem  under 
consideration  is  so  remote  or  indirect  or  obvious  as  to 
make  an  analytical  treatment  of  them  unnecessary. 

Any  discussion  of  discipline  and  its  attendant  con- 
sequences would  be  inadequate  if  it  did  not  involve 
a  treatment  of  that  hoary  but  nevertheless  unsolved 
problem  of  the  relation  of  authority  to  obedience,  for 
it  must  be  admitted  that  both  are  traditionally  sanc- 
tioned and  indisputably  unnecessary  in  the  govern- 
ment of  any  school.  At  times  the  school  has  attempted 
to  imitate  some  form  of  municipal  or  state  government, 
but  there  are  few  successful  attempts  of  record,  except 
where  some  powerful  personality  has  been  back  of 
them.  At  other  times  the  school  has  attempted  to 
imitate  an  ideal  home  where  every  phase  of  conduct 
is  controlled  though  the  manifestations  of  affection, 
but  obviously  such  a  basis  of  control  is  not  equally 
appKcable  to  all  grades  of  the  school.  The  school  is 
not  society,  nor  can  it  exactly  duplicate  any  institu- 
tion of  society.  It  is  a  society  and  as  such  has  its 
own  strengths  and  limitations  for  doing  certain  kinds 
of  work.  Its  work  depends  to  some  extent  upon  obe- 
dience to  authority.  Authority,  wisely  used,  inspires 
confidence  in  the  child  and  cultivates  that  feeling  of 
respect  which  should  dominate  all  well-ordered  schools. 

Obedience  does  not  destroy  independence.  It  lays 
the  only  true  foundation  for  independence.  Certainly 
one  of  the  rights  of  every  child  is  to  have  the  benefit 
of  the  will  of  his  elders  concerning  things  about  which 


xviii  INTRODUCTION 

he  has  no  will.  There  is  no  justification  in  psychology 
for  the  theory  that  children  should  be  allowed  to 
follow  unrestrictedly  their  impulses  and  instinctive 
tendencies  and  that,  if  left  alone,  they  will  grow  up 
into  intelligent,  civilized,  moral  beings.  There  can 
be  no  freedom  in  any  institution  except  by  obedience 
to  those  conditions  or  laws  that  are  necessary  for  the 
perpetuity  of  the  institution.  The  only  natural  rights 
any  one  has  are  the  ones  he  uses  for  collective  welfare. 
Freedom  in  adulthood  calls  for  the  exercise  of  a  certain 
amount  of  authority  in  childhood.  The  great  work  of 
civilization  and  of  education  has  been  that  of  over- 
laying certain  primitive  tendencies  so  that  all  might 
more  satisfactorily  satisfy  the  conditions  necessary  for 
good  citizenship,  for  neighborhood  and  family  Hfe. 

Mere  spontaneous  activity  never  in  itself  produced 
reflective  thinking.  It  is  simply  overflow,  undiffer- 
entiated and  disorganized.  Unless  something  arises 
to  disturb  and  check  the  flow  of  events,  to  make 
us  conscious  of  some  maladjustment,  to  intensify  the 
sensation  of  strain  between  what  we  are  and  are  not 
but  ought  to  be,  no  thinking  is  done.  The  person  who 
is  the  victim  of  a  thousand  and  one  chance  stimula- 
tions of  his  environment  is  characterless;  but  the 
person  who  has  learned  to  choose  his  stimuli  or  his 
responses  as  the  result  of  wise  teaching  has  acquired 
the  fundamentals  of  character. 

As  efl&ciency  in  language  is  not  measured  by  the 
number  of  mistakes  one  makes,  but  by  the  correctness 
of  his  speech,  so  the  test  of  ejficiency  in  school  dis- 
cipline is  not  the  number  of  offenses  committed  but 
the  freedom  from  offenses. 


THE 
DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

CHAPTER   I 

THE  PLACE  AND  WORK  OF  THE  SCHOOL  IN 
MODERN  LIFE 

Schools  are  so  important  and  universal  a  factor  in 
modern  life  that  few  people  think  of  trying  to  justify 
or  explain  them.  Nevertheless,  at  a  time  when  the 
most  universal  and  time-honored  institutions  are  called 
upon  by  thoughtful  people  to  give  a  reason  for  the 
faith  that  men  have  in  them,  even  the  school  may  be 
put  in  question.  For  the  reliable  intuition  of  society 
at  large,  it  is  enough  that  the  experience  of  centuries 
has  established  the  school  as  one  of  the  taken-for- 
granted  adjuncts  of  civilization;  but  for  the  pragmatist 
whose  questionings  are  a  saving  antidote  to  the  inertia 
of  conservatism,  there  must  be  a  provable  justification 
for  even  this  well-established  institution.  That  the 
school  has  such  a  justification  in  its  function  and  its 
service  must  be  conceded  by  practically  all  people, 
including  those  who  dififer  most  as  to  just  what  that 
function  and  service  should  be. 

There  are  three  social  institutions  which  take  it  upon 
themselves  consciously  to  train  children  for  their  work 
in  the  world.  They  are  the  home,  the  church,  the 
school.     At  different  times  in  the  world's  history  each 


2  DISCIPLINE   OF   THE   SCHOOL 

has  borne  the  greater  burden  of  responsibility;  at  present 
the  school  has  been  rather  reluctantly  forced  to  under- 
take duties  either  voluntarily  given  up,  or  taken  by  force 
of  circumstance  from  the  other  two.  In  general,  the 
The  two  school  recognizes  two  great  duties  devolving  upon  it:  to 
the'^s^ool*'  prepare  children  for  living,  by  making  them  intelligent 
sharers  in  the  life  of  their  time;  and  to  prepare  them  for 
the  task  of  adding  something  to  the  sum  of  human 
welfare.  The  first  function  has  for  its  aim  to  help  the 
child  catch  up  with  the  race;  the  second,  to  aid  the 
race  in  its  efforts  at  progress.  The  school,  then,  stands 
with  the  home  and  the  church  as  a  great  unifying  force, 
reconciling  the  individuals  in  its  care  to  their  environ- 
ment, and  then  stimulating  them  to  realize  in  that 
environment  their  individual  ideals. 

But  the  school  was  never  intended  by  men  to  usurp 
the  whole  responsibility  of  the  training  of  the  rising 
generation;  nor  should  it,  though  never  so  urgently 
stimulated  by  the  need  of  the  day,  try  to  attend  to 
The  Whole  Duty  of  Man.  There  is  a  set  of  duties 
which  belongs  inherently  to  it,  because  it  can  perform 
these  better,  more  economically,  and  more  skillfully, 
than  can  the  home  or  the  church.  There  are  other 
duties  which  it  should  leave  to  the  institutions  whose 
proper  care  they  are.  Religious  training,  for  instance, 
is  as  important  as  any  part  of  a  child's  education;  and 
yet  it  is  manifestly  impossible  for  the  public  schools  of 
a  country  in  which  all  shades  and  varieties  of  religious 
belief  find  adherents  and  protection,  to  give  specific  in- 
struction in  that  subject.  At  a  time  when  the  advo- 
cates of  a  hundred  additions  to  our  already  crowded 
courses  are  urging  that  the  curriculums  be  extended  to 


THE  SCHOOL  IN  MODERN  LIFE  3 

include  new  studies  growing  from  new  aims  and  func- 
tions, it  is  very  necessary  that  practical  people  keep 
in  mind  the  natural  limitations  of  the  school's  duties. 
Incidentally,  no  school  worthy  the  support  of  society 
can  fail  to  contribute  to  the  ethical,  religious,  economic 
and  aesthetic  education  of  its  pupils;  but  directly, 
its  duty  is  plainly  within  a  wide  but  not  unlimited  sphere 
of  intellectual  and  social  training. 

The  child  starts  —  even  the  most  favored  child.  Catching  up 
with  every  advantage  of  inheritance  and  environ-  race 
ment  —  exactly  where  the  child  of  the  Stone  Age 
started.  He  is  as  helpless,  as  ignorant,  and  as  pliable 
as  the  baby  in  a  Paleolithic  cave.  But  when  he 
becomes  a  man,  there  will  be  required  of  him,  if  he 
is  to  take  his  place  in  the  world  of  his  day,  a  variety 
and  scope  of  information,  of  skill,  and  of  trained 
ability  of  which  the  cave-man  could  have  no  con- 
ception. His  childhood,  however,  has  not  been  length- 
ened in  proportion  to  the  greater  preparation  for 
maturity  necessary  for  him.  Obviously,  he  must  have 
help  in  accompHshing  so  great  a  task.  He  is  to  learn, 
by  the  time  he  is  grown  and  ready  to  do  a  man's  part, 
a  sufficiently  large  proportion  of  all  that  men  have 
learned  since  time  began,  to  enable  him  to  understand 
the  life  of  his  own  day  and  to  enter  into  it  intelli- 
gently. Much  of  this  learning  he  acquires  uncon- 
sciously, absorbing  incidentally  from  his  environ- 
ment and  his  companions;  but  a  great  body  of  the 
required  training  is  such  that  only  organized,  well- 
planned,  and  directed  instruction  can  impart.  Some 
standard  of  preparation,  some  body  of  information 
upon  which  men  agree  as  most  necessary  for   the 


4  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

children  of  any  given  age,  must  be  adopted.  Curricu- 
lums  are  not  thoughtlessly  or  arbitrarily  fixed  by  chance 
authorities.  Despite  the  representations  of  some 
would-be  reformers  engaged  chiefly  in  tearing  down 
what  has  been  accomplished,  it  is  true  that  no  chance 
pedagogical  despot  ever  laid  down  courses  of  study 
for  the  torture  of  future  generations.  Accepted 
subjects  are  those  which  an  instinctive  feeling  for 
what  children  need  for  their  work  makes  traditional. 
They  have  the  inertia  of  all  accepted  things,  however; 
they  follow  after  the  real  needs  of  their  era  oftener 
than  they  anticipate  them.  But,  with  the  new  thought- 
fulness  and  conscientiousness  which  is  taking  the 
place  of  tradition  in  education,  we  are  approximating 
the  ideal  of  the  first  great  function  of  the  school:  we 
are  preparing  the  child  to  take  his  place  in  his  age. 
The  school's  We  are  succeeding  fairly  well  in  putting  him  in  posses- 
^*  *^  °°  sion  of  the  great  typical  experiences  of  the  race.  The 
first  function  of  the  school  then  is  to  furnish  a  short- 
cut to  the  net  result  of  the  world's  long,  hard  road  to 
knowledge.  It  is  to  give  him  an  epitome  of  the  pro- 
gressive experience  of  the  race. 
Preparing  The  second  function  of  the  school  is  to  make  its 

the  race  pupils  socially  serviceable.  Since  there  are  other 
institutions  which  properly  assume  part  of  the  re- 
sponsibility, the  school  may  specialize  here,  undertak- 
ing the  more  intellectual  side  of  the  required  training, 
while  the  home  and  the  church  work  especially  with 
the  more  personal  of  the  social  relationships,  religion, 
and  the  finer  points  of  culture.  A  hard  and  fast 
limitation  to  the  work  of  any  one  institution  is  no 
more  possible  than  the  division  of  the  child's  identity 


THE  SCHOOL  IN  MODERN  LIFE  5 

into  separate  bundles  of  faculties  or   characteristics. 

But,  in  general,  it  may  be  said  that  society  at  large, 

which  authorizes  and  furnishes  the  school  as  an  econom-  ^h**  is 

.  .  .         expected  of 

ical  way  of  paying  part  of  its  debt  to  the  oncoming  the  school 
generation,  expects  the  school  to  fit  children  for  social 
efl&ciency  by 

1.  Furnishing  them  the  information  that  will  enable 
them  to  interpret  the  world  about  them. 

2.  Teaching  them  a  set  of  skills  which  they  wiU 
need  in  social  intercourse  —  such  as  reading, 
writing,  etc. 

3.  Training  in  appreciation. 

4.  Fitting  them  for  social  service  by  familiarizing 
them  with  socially  serviceable  methods  of  work, 
and  by  building  up  those  prejudices,  attitudes, 
and  ideals  that  give  the  proper  bias  for  such 
service. 

To  these,  popular  opinion  has  lately  added  a  fifth: 
Teaching  them  a  set  of  skills  which  will  give 
them  economic  independence. 

The  school  has  been  established  and  is  supported 
by  society  esf)ecially  for  the  foregoing  purposes,  and 
is  justified  because  it  has  at  least  partially  fulfilled 
them.  It  seems  to  be  entering  upon  a  period  of  much 
more  efficient  helpfulness  than  it  has  ever  given,  but 
its  enlarged  usefulness  lies  in  a  fuller  realization  of  its 
purposes,  rather  than  in  an  extension  of  these  purposes. 
It  can  never  take  the  place  of  other  institutions,  and 
no  permanent  good  is  to  be  realized  from  shifting  to 
the  school,  at  a  time  when  it  is  straining  every  nerve 
to  satisfy  the  legitimate  demands  of  society,  the  real 
work  of  home,  church,  or  government. 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


The  school 
in   its    rela- 
tions to 
other 
institutions 


The  school 
and  the 
state 


It  is  necessary  for  our  study  of  the  place  and  part 
of  the  school  in  modern  life,  to  consider  beside  its 
place  and  function,  its  relations  to  the  other  con- 
trolling influences  in  the  child's  environment.  It 
should  form  part  of  an  articulated  and  harmonious 
unity  of  constructive  forces,  which  combine  to  furnish 
the  necessary  varied  and  correlated  stimuli  to  whole- 
some and  all-round  development.  In  the  nature  of 
things  it  is  obvious  that  the  school  bears  a  more  or 
less  fixed  and  definite  relation  to  the  state,  to  the 
parents  of  the  children  it  trains,  to  the  children  them- 
selves, and  to  several  social  institutions,  notably  the 
home  and  the  church  and  those  modern  would-be 
substitutes  for  both  home  and  church  which  have  to 
some  extent  taken  over  their  work  and  responsibilities. 
An  inquiry  into  the  nature  of  these  relations  is  perti- 
nent to  our  subject,  for  only  by  understanding  with 
some  degree  of  exactness  just  where  it  stands  as  a 
force  in  the  world,  can  we  gauge  the  nature  and  extent 
of  the  school's  authority  —  the  point  upon  which 
depends  the  whole  question  of  school  discipUne. 

The  state  is  an  economical  device  by  which  men 
unite  to  effect  certain  desirable  ends  which  no  one 
man  could  secure  for  himself.  It  is  first  protective 
and  afterward  advantage-seeking.  As  an  organiza- 
tion seeking  the  advantage  of  its  members,  it  has 
taken  over  the  business  of  formal  education  from  the 
home,  which  yields  its  claim  to  control  readily  because 
the  state  can  do  the  work  more  effectively  and  more 
economically.  The  state  has  created  a  special  de- 
partment, with  its  own  revenues,  equipment,  and 
officers,  to  attend  to  this  work;  and  we  call  this  depart- 


THE  SCHOOL  IN  MODERN  LIFE  7 

ment  of  the  state  the  School  System.  Properly  speak- 
ing, the  public  school  is  not  a  separate  institution, 
as  is  the  church  in  the  United  States.  It  is  a  part  of 
the  state,  maintained,  as  are  laws,  courts,  postoflSces, 
for  the  protection  and  service  of  the  people.^ 

It  is  imperfect  and  faulty  in  its  organization  and  Asocial 
requirements,  as  are  the  laws;  but  such  as  it  is,  it  *°^  *°° 
represents  the  will  of  the  society  which  has  created  it, 
and  demands  the  support  of  all  citizens.  It  is  con- 
trolled in  our  country  by  the  various  state  govern- 
ments, or  the  lesser  units  to  which  they  delegate 
this  function  —  to  towns,  cities,  counties  and  school 
districts.  The  teachers,  principals,  and  superinten- 
dents are  rarely  officers  in  a  technical  sense,  being 
employed  under  contract  instead  of  being  elected. 
They  are  obliged  to  serve,  as  all  officers  do,  subject 
to  laws  and  regulations,  and  also  to  enforce  all  laws 
and  regulations  that  pertain  to  their  work  and  positions. 
Their  relation  to  their  schools  is  a  legal  one,  and  the 
schools  themselves  are  legally  controlled.^  The  status 
of  the  school  as  a  part  of  the  state  will  often  be  referred 
to  in  these  pages,  as  its  right  to  the  authority  it  claims 
is  based  upon  this  relation. 

The  school  does  not  derive  its  authority  from  the  Parents  and 
parents  of  the  children  who  attend,  as  the  popular 
phrase  in  loco  parentis  has  led  many  to  suppose,  but 
from  the  whole  body  of  organized  society.  There- 
fore the  parents  of  children  have  no  inherent  right  what- 
ever to  dictate  to  the  school  what  its  methods  shall 

*  Felix   Adler,   The   Moral   Instruction   of  Children,  N.Y.,  1902, 
page  II.     Woodrow  Wilson,    The  State,  Boston,   1904,  page  638. 

•  A.  C.  Perry,  The  Management  of  a  City  School,  pages  25-34. 


8  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

be.  Teachers  are  responsible,  not  to  the  parents  of 
their  pupils,  but  directly  to  the  state,  which  is  society's 
representative  power.  Since  the  state  has,  in  estab- 
lishing the  school  and  assigning  to  it  certain  duties, 
taken  from  parents  the  responsibility  of  furnishing 
their  children  the  training  which  the  school  offers, 
the  state  assumes  also  the  dictation  of  means  and 
methods.  The  only  way  in  which  a  parent  can  logi- 
cally change  school  poUcies  is  to  act  through  the  state. 
Practically,  of  course,  a  hundred  considerations  of 
interest,  of  expedition,  of  friendly  cooperation  and 
community  of  ends,  operate  to  bridge  this  red-tape 
gulf  of  the  state  that  lies  between  teachers  and  parents. 
For  although  as  an  element  in  the  whole  fabric  of 
social  organization,  the  state  stands  between  parent 
and  school,  as  an  element  in  the  training  of  citizens 
the  school  stands  between  parent  and  state,  an  in- 
stitution for  protection  and  development,  combining 
Parental  the  motives  of  love  and  justice.  But  in  case  of  appeal 
to  ultimate  authority,  and  as  a  basis  for  formulating 
school  pohcies,  every  teacher  should  remember  that 
authority  is  of  the  state,  and  that  the  policies  used  in 
schools  are  not  subject  to  parental  veto  or  parental 
control.^  The  logical  recourse  of  a  parent  who  objects 
to  the  manner  in  which  the  school  furnishes  his  child 
with  the  training  that  the  state  requires,  is  to  remove 

*  This  principle  is  commonly  recognized  in  any  case  of  disagree- 
ment where  the  matter  at  issue  is  referred  to  the  local  school  board 
for  adjustment.  The  result  is  often  so  unjust  in  its  operation  as 
to  afiFord  the  best  possible  argument  for  the  substitution  of  a  larger 
political  unit  in  the  management  of  school  affairs.  Political  or 
family  influence  has  had  a  notoriously  demoralizing  influence  in 
the  local  management  of  school  matters  in  the  United  States. 


interference 


THE  SCHOOL  IN  MODERN  LIFE  9 

him  from  school  and  furnish  that  training  from  his 
private  means.  But  the  relations  of  parent  and  child, 
and  teacher  and  pupil,  have  so  much  in  common  that 
a  meeting-ground  of  friendly  cooperation  is  rarely 
hard  to  find.  The  opinionated  parent  is  not  half  the 
obstacle,  in  fact,  that  the  indifferent  parent  is,  al- 
though the  opinionated  parent  is  usually  harder  to 
reform.     Most   teachers   agree   that   the   securing   of  interesting 

1  ••  r     ^  ^•rr        T  r      ^      '        *^*  parents 

parental  cooperation  is  one  of  the  most  diihcult  of  their 
problems.  Parents'  Clubs  and  Mothers'  Clubs  enable 
the  teacher  to  secure  reenforcement  at  home  for  his 
efforts  at  school,  and  to  reenforce  at  school  what  may 
be  attempted  at  home.  An  ideaUst  from  Mars,  be- 
coming acquainted  with  our  social  institutions,  might 
suppose  that  the  parents  of  a  given  community,  upon 
surrendering  their  children  to  a  public  institution  for 
that  training  which  Nature  and  society  originally 
required  of  them,^  would  voluntarily  organize  a  super- 
visory and  cooperative  association,  with  a  view  to 
keeping  tab  on  all  the  methods  used  and  all  the  results 
obtained.  He  would  be  surprised  to  learn  that  such 
organizations  spring,  not  from  the  efforts  of  parents 
but  from  the  efforts  of  teachers,  and  that  parents  must 
usually  be  begged,  cajoled,  and  preached  at  to  make 
them  attend.  It  is  among  teachers  as  a  body, 
rather    than    among    parents,    Ihat    there    exists    a 

1  But  see  A.  J.  Todd,  The  Primitive  Family  as  an  Educative 
Agency.  The  author  says  that  the  family  is  a  developed  institution 
and  that  society  from  the  first  took  the  initiative  in  training  children. 
Homes  have  not  degenerated  of  late  years,  but  among  a  majority 
of  the  human  race  have  never  developed  to  the  point  considered 
typical  by  the  writers  of  the  past.  The  theory  is  interesting  and 
not  unsupported  by  evidence. 


io  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

compelling  sense  of  responsibility  toward  the  next 
generation. 

The  school  must  take  the  initiative,  then,  in  estab- 
lishing the  close  bond  that  should  exist  between  it  and 
the  parents  of  its  pupils.  It  will  find  a  fairly  ready 
response  wherever  great  wealth  or  great  poverty  do 
not  dull  the  sense  of  parental  responsibility  or  prevent 
its  exercise.  The  end  for  which  both  are  working 
should  be  kept  constantly  in  evidence,  not  only  because 
it  furnishes  the  basis  for  cooperation,  but  because 
parents  so  seldom  realize  its  full  significance,  and  need 
to  have  their  own  part  of  the  child's  training  con- 
sciously squared  to  it. 
The  school  The  school  exercises  a  benevolent  despotism  toward 
chad  its  pupils.     Each  child  is  placed  in  it  to  perform  its 

bidding  implicitly,  though  not  unquestioningly.  It  is 
a  world  in  itself,  which  articulates  with  several  other 
worlds  in  which  he  moves  and  to  which  he  belongs, 
and  it  is  subject  to  a  great  power  called  the  state,  which 
represents  the  power  and  will  of  the  greatest  world 
of  all,  which  is  society.  This  world  of  the  school  is 
organized  by  society  for  the  benefit  of  children,  that 
they  may  be  able  to  benefit  society  in  turn,  and  be 
themselves  the  happier  for  what  they  learn  there. 
The  teachers  are  in  the  school  for  the  purpose  of 
helping  them  to  become  intelligent,  happy,  helpful. 
All  that  makes  boys  and  girls  intelHgent,  happy,  and 
helpful  in  the  school  is  right,  and  therefore  permissible. 
When  children  act  in  a  way  that  defeats  the  purpose 
of  the  school,  and  so  harm  themselves,  the  teacher, 
who  represents  the  state,  which  represents  society, 
piust  correct  them,  and  keep  them  from  repeating  the 


THE  SCHOOL  IN  MODERN  LIFE  ii 

offense.  He  has  a  perfect  right  to  do  so,  because  no 
one  person  can  be  permitted  to  clog  the  wheels  of 
progress,  to  defeat  the  good  purposes  of  society. 

So  soon  as  children  can  be  trusted  to  carry  on  their 
part  of  society's  great  work  without  being  watched  and 
without  fail,  they  have  reached  the  responsible  estate 
of  grown  people  and  can  govern  themselves.  Part  of 
the  school's  work  is  to  help  them  to  reach  this  stage 
as  soon  as  possible. 

It  were  beside  the  point  and  superfluous  to  try  to  The  school 
make  clear  the  relations  of  moraUty  to  religion.  We  ^^^ 
live  in  a  land  whose  dominant  reUgion  offers  no  teach- 
ing that  conflicts  with  the  finest  ethical  code  yet 
devised;  indeed,  the  highest  word  we  have  to  say  of 
such  a  code  is  that  it  is  one  of  practical  Christianity. 
The  schools  are  for  obvious  reasons  not  to  teach  reli- 
gion; but  they  are  just  as  obviously  bound  to  incul- 
cate, directly  and  indirectly,  the  principles  of  morality. 
The  relation  of  the  school  to  the  church,  in  all  its  vari- 
ous branches  and  divisions,  is  an  absolutely  unofficial 
one,  and  can  never,  while  American  principles  are 
recognized  and  supported,  be  otherwise.  No  teacher 
who  uses  his  influences  for  or  against  any  denomination 
or  cult,  has  a  defensible  place  in  the  American  school 
system.  But  it  is  the  place  of  the  school  to  rationalize 
moral  instruction,  as  it  is  the  office  of  the  church  to 
give  to  moral  instruction  the  motive  force  of  high 
emotional  appeal.  Morality  appears  reasonable  and 
profitable  to  the  child  who  has  been  rightly  instructed 
at  school;  it  is,  for  the  child  who  has  had  the  right 
kind  of  rehgious  instruction,  an  obligation  enforced 
by  the  deepest  feelings  of  reverence,  gratitude,  and 


12 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


The  school 
and  the 
church  are 
comple- 
mentary 


love.  The  school's  duty,  moreover,  is  to  clarify  man's 
relation  to  man;  the  church's,  man's  duty  to  God. 
As  the  two  phases  of  duty  can  not  conflict,  and  as  all 
interpretations  of  Christianity  are  supposed  to  har- 
monize with  fundamental  ethics,  the  school  may  be 
considered  the  ally  of  all  the  branches  of  the  church, 
supplying  that  rational  basis  for  moral  judgments  which 
every  thinking  human  being  demands  at  one  time  or 
another.  Indeed,  the  very  efhcacy  and  dependability 
of  religion  is  sometimes  contingent  on  just  the  sort  of 
rationalized  prejudice  which  the  school  can  and  does 
impart  to  its  pupils.  The  practical  value  of  moral 
instruction,  on  the  other  hand,  is  immensely  increased 
by  the  emotionalization  of  religious  conviction  and 
aspiration.  Capable  of  so  immensely  strengthening 
the  work,  each  of  the  other,  it  is  important  that  teacher 
and  priest,  as  well  as  the  laymen  of  both  institutions, 
use  all  possible  means  of  establishing  and  keeping  up 
this  friendly  cooperation  of  the  two  great  instructive 
forces  of  modern  times. 

Summary 
The  school  is  delegated  by  the  state  to  prepare 
children  for  efficient  living  and  service.  Other  phases 
of  this  preparation  are  assumed  by  the  home  and  the 
church,  but  it  is  the  sense  of  society  that  the  state, 
through  its  schools,  can  best  attend  to  the  training  of 
mind  and  hand.  Since  all  the  forces  which  go  to  de- 
velop a  whole  man  or  woman  must  work  simultaneously 
and  should  work  harmoniously,  it  is  very  important 
that  the  school  be  in  close  touch  and  friendly  relations 
with  state,  home,  church,  and  all  the  institutions  and 
forces  which  influence  childhood. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  MODES   OF   SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT 

All  the  training  which  society  gives  to  individuals, 
which  helps  them  better  to  control  their  powers,  may 
be  called  disciplinary.  This  disciplinary  control  springs 
from  a  variety  of  relationships  and  principles,  which 
may  be  divided  for  the  sake  of  convenience  into  five 
general  classes,  giving  rise  to  five  types  or  modes  of 
government.  While  each  mode  is  distinct  in  its  origins, 
nature,  and  results,  few  concrete  instances  of  school  f*^® 

fundamental 

government  can  be  classed  exactly  with  any  one  mode,  modes 
owing  to  the  complex  nature  of  schoolroom  life  and 
aims.  In  actual  practice  the  modes  overlap,  merging 
imperceptibly  or  passing  sharply  one  into  another. 
They  represent  nodal  points  in  methods  of  school 
management,  however;  they  are  types  of  the  means 
used  to  secure  and  keep  good  order  and  a  good  spirit 
in  a  schoolroom.  They  predominate  at  various  periods 
in  the  development  of  any  one  child;  they  are  variously 
emphasized  by  different  teachers,  communities,  and 
ages;  they  supplement  and  strengthen  one  another 
in  a  thousand  ways.  Through  all  their  elaborate 
inter-relations,  however,  the  fundamental  differences 
in  these  five  modes  remain  unchanged.  In  the  follow- 
ing discussion  they  are  treated  approximately  in  the 
order  of  their  historical  development,  and  in  the 
reverse  order  of  their  probable  worth  in  bringing  about 
ideal  school  conditions. 


14 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


The  natural 
origin  of 
school 
authority 


I.  The  Mode  of  Absolute  Authority 

Pedagogy  in  its  simplest  form  is  the  oldest  science 
practiced  by  man.  The  man  who  mastered  the  first 
rude  art  taught  it  to  his  children  and  his  neighbors, 
and  because  he  knew  more  than  they,  found  himself 
in  a  position  of  authority  among  them.  Greatest  of 
all  men  was  Prometheus;  and  every  unknown  fire- 
bringer,  with  his  circle  of  learners  about  him,  shared 
his  glory  and  his  penalty.  The  authority  of  the 
teacher  usually  coincided  with  the  paternal  preroga- 
tives, and  was  so  the  more  easily  estabhshed.  When 
schools  were  established,  the  authority  of  the  teacher- 
father  carried  over  naturally  into  the  institution.  No 
one  reasoned  why;  it  was  a  matter  of  tradition  and 
development,  an  inevitable  part  of  the  sequence  of 
events,  a  concession  to  the  eternal  fitness  of  things. 
That  the  teacher  stands  in  the  place  of  the  parent  has 
been  one  maxim  universally  accepted;  and  the  nature 
and  workings  of  the  teacher's  authority  have  shown  an  • 
interesting  tendency  to  imitate  the  methods  of  control 
in  vogue  in  the  home.  The  era  of  stern  discipline  and 
severe  corporal  punishment  in  both  was  coeval;  and 
when  parental  severity  was  relaxed  in  favor  of  more 
gentle  means,  the  school  was  forced  to  fall  into  line, 
and  somewhat  reluctantly  to  concede  its  right  to 
paddle  and  whip. 

The  mode  of  control  by  appeal  to  its  absolute  au- 
thority is,  then,  the  school's  oldest,  simplest,  and  most 
direct  of  all  ways  of  securing  good  order.  Combined 
with  the  type  which  rests  its  power  on  the  personal 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  15 

appeal  of  the  teacher  to  the  child,  it  is  the  mode  which 
has  been  consciously  employed  until  very  modern 
times. 

Nor  is  it  by  any  means  an  outworn  and  discarded 
type  of  school  government.  Not  only  in  practice  but 
in  theory,  it  rests  upon  a  justification  so  sound  that  it 
will  never  become  obsolete.  Its  acknowledged  exist- 
ence and  righteousness  gives  dignity  and  stabihty  to 
all  other  forms  of  control.  As  a  starting  point  if 
possible,  as  an  ultimate  appeal  if  necessary,  the  teach- 
er's authoritative  control  of  the  situation,  as  society's 
rightful  representative,  makes  his  position  tenable. 
He  controls  his  domain  —  within  the  reasonable  limits 
set  by  custom  and  public  opinion  —  as  rightfully  as 
other  civil  ofl&cers  execute  the  statute  law. 

That  this  mode  is  to  be  abandoned  in  favor  of  others  inherent 
when  possible,  then,  is  not  because  it  rests  upon  any  ^g  ^^^^^  ° 
imtenable  principle,  not  because  it  is  inherently  un- 
just or  harmful.  It  is  because  it  is  not  the  mode  which 
is  best  calculated  to  teach  pupils  to  be  self-governing, 
and  so  to  order  their  conduct  that  it  gives  the  best 
service  to  society.  The  use  of  authority  is  at  best 
society's  necessary  temporary  expedient,  when  it  finds 
itself  confronted  with  many  classes  of  people  whose 
wishes  do  not  conform  to  the  general  good.  So  the 
teacher's  authority  is  to  be  exercised  as  a  concession 
to  actual  conditions,  keeping  always  in  mind  the 
possibility  of  attaining  an  ideal  condition  in  which  it 
will  not  be  needed.  Its  use  may  well  be  limited  to  the 
following  cases: 

I.  When  pupils  are  not  sufficiently  advanced  for  the 
use  of  other  modes. 


i6  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

2.  When  the  need  of  quick  action  and  speedy  and 
clear-cut  decision  preclude  the  slower  methods. 

3.  When  the  use  of  authority  will  have  a  good  effect 
upon  public  opinion. 

4.  In  cases  of  anarchy,  with  those  who  deny  and 
defy  authority.  An  actual  demonstration  of 
the  superiority  of  authorized  and  organized 
power  over  the  will  of  the  individual  is  usually 
that  power's  best  argument.  There  are  few  who 
do  not  recall  the  regenerating  effects  of  a  sound 
whipping  upon  some  school  bully  who  thought 
the  teacher  didn't  dare. 

With  whom        The  pupils  with  whom  it  is  advisable  to  use  this  mode 
mode  may  be  divided  into  three  classses — the  very  young, 

the  socially  untrained,  and  the  abnormal.  The  reason 
for  its  use  with  the  very  young  is  obvious  enough.  Since 
habit-forming  is  the  type  of  educational  training  for 
them  (the  period  of  rationalization  not  having  arrived), 
and  since  curiosity  usually  gives  a  sufficient  impetus 
for  new  activities,  constant  and  detailed  direction  is 
needed.  Very  Httle  people  must  simply  be  told  what 
to  do,  and  punished  in  some  reasonable  way  for  not 
obeying,  until  the  habit  of  obedience  becomes  fixed 
and  its  discretion  clear.  Self-direction  comes  naturally 
with  the  acquiring  of  fundamental  habits  and  the 
ability  to  think,  and  so  other  modes  normally  supplant 
that  of  absolute  authority  as  the  child  grows  older. 
But  little  children  must  learn  that  some  things  are 
wrong  and  must  not  be  done,  or  being  done  bring  swift 
and  sure  punishment.  "The  first  thing  the  child  has 
to  learn  about  this  matter,"  says  the  philosopher  of 
The  Breakfast  Table,  "is  that  lying  is  unprofitable  — 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  17 

afterwards  that  it  is  against  the  peace  and  dignity  of 
the  universe." 

Perhaps  the  most  appalling  single  condition  facing  The  sociaiij 
American  teachers  in  these  days  is  the  lack  of  home 
training   shown   everywhere.     As   one   function   after 
another,  formerly  vested  in  the  home,  is  yielded  up  by 
that  emancipated  institution,  the  school  is  urged 

Once  more  into  the  breach,  kind  friends ! 

to  take  up  the  neglected  duty.  The  German  teacher 
finds  his  beginner  already  grounded  in  a  deep  respect 
for  authority,  a  fixed  habit  of  impUcit  obedience,  and 
a  growing  consideration  for  others.  With  this  founda- 
tion laid,  the  superstructure  of  formal  training  is  easily 
and  solidly  built.  American  teachers,  especially  in 
strictly  American  communities,  must  often  lay  this 
foundation  themselves.  They  receive  year  after  year 
sets  of  pupils  who  are  not  only  socially  untrained,^ 
but  whose  lack  of  social  training  extends,  so  far  as  the 
home  is  concerned,  throughout  childhood  and  into 
maturity.  It  is  trite  and  profitless  to  remark  upon  the 
decay  of  family  authority  —  of  which,  as  has  been  said, 
"there  is  as  much  as  ever,  but  it  has  changed  hands." 
It  is  absolutely  necessary,  however,  that  we  recognize 
this  condition  and  its  effect  upon  the  discipline  of  our 
schools.  It  interferes  seriously  with  their  efficiency 
by  forcing  teachers  to  expend  time  and  energy  in  giving 
their  pupils  a  training  which  they  might  reasonably 
expect   them   to   have   received   from    their   parents. 

*  The  term  "  sodal  training"  is  a  somewhat  vague  one,  but  is 
used  here  to  mean  that  training  which  makes  consideration  for 
others  habitual,  and  which  teaches  individuals  to  plan  their  lives 
with  reference  to  the  good  of  society. 


of  freedom 


18  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

Socially  untrained  pupils,  of  whatever  age,  are  in  the 
same  stage  of  development  as  the  kindergarten  pupil 
or  the  first-grader,  and  must  be  led  through  submission 
to  authority,  and  personal  influence,  and  wholesome 
interests  in  auxiliary  activities,  to  the  point  at  which 
the  school  appeal  outweighs  the  personal  one. 
The  misuse  Among  the  socially  untrained  none  are  more  given 
to  misunderstanding  and  misusing  liberty,  than  those 
from  whom  it  has  been  long  and  unjustly  withheld. 
Freedom  granted  to  men  who  have  been  long  oppressed 
is  especially  likely  to  degenerate  into  license.  The 
children  of  European  immigrants  escaping  from  long 
suppression  and  persecution  in  their  own  land,  and  the 
children  who  are  cuffed  into  scared  inactivity  at  home, 
are  often  children  who  take  advantage  of  every  relaxa- 
tion of  authority,  of  every  freedom  from  oversight  and 
direction.  They  do  not  know  how  to  use  freedom  with 
temperance,  but  are  intoxicated  with  it  to  the  point  of 
lawlessness.  They  confuse  liberty  with  license  in  a 
way  that  is  natural  and  perhaps  excusable,  but  it  is 
the  greatest  of  all  mistakes  to  allow  them  to  persist 
in  this  misunderstanding.  Until  they  have  learned 
self-control,  until  they  have  learned  that  they  belong 
to  an  organic  whole  whose  members  are  interdependent, 
and  in  which  injury  is  reflexive,  they  can  not  be  trusted 
with  much  personal  liberty.  Even  those  children 
whose  parents  enjoy  and  understand  the  true  uses  of 
liberty,  those  who  may  reasonably  be  expected  to 
absorb  from  their  environment  the  knowledge  of  rea- 
sonable Umits  and  restraints  to  personal  freedom,  must 
be  led  carefully  from  one  exercise  of  self-direction  to 
another.     For  those  unfortunates  who  can  have  no 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  19 

real  conception  of  the  kind  of  freedom  which  insures 
the  rights  of  all,  there  must  be  much  restraint  before 
the  difference  between  liberty  and  Hcense  is  plain. 
This  problem  of  the  alien  and  of  the  repressed  child 
is  especially  important  in  great  cities,  and  furnishes 
a  chief  reason  for  retaining  there,  unimpaired,  con- 
servative ideas  of  the  absolute  authority  of  the  teacher. 

Teachers  recognize  two  types  of  pupils  with  whom  Authority 
the  usual  means  fail  of  usual  results.     These  are  con-  ^°^^^ 

abnormal 

stitutional  and  temporary  abnormals.  Markedly  ab- 
normal pupils  have  properly  no  place  in  the  ordinary 
pubhc  school,  but  while  our  eleemosynary  systems 
remain  imperfect  and  inadequate  for  our  needs,  they 
will  continue  to  compUcate  the  teaching  problem. 
The  use  of  simple  and  direct  authority  as  the  quickest 
and  most  effective  way  of  securing  results  is  usually 
justifiable  when  such  pupils  are  admitted  to  public 
schools.  It  is  not  right  to  take  from  the  normal  pupils 
in  the  school,  the  time  necessary  for  dealing  with  these 
cases  in  the  proper  way.  Every  effort  should  be  taken 
to  have  them  removed  to  the  special  institutions  where 
they  belong;  failing  that,  it  is  clearly  not  the  duty  of 
pubUc  school  teachers  to  expend  upon  them  more  time 
than  they  are  fairly  entitled  to,  more  than  would  be 
needed  by  normal  children,  and  more  than  others  re- 
ceive. The  great  aim  of  the  school  is  to  improve 
the  race,  to  better  society;  the  palhation  of  the  mis- 
takes and  blunders  of  the  ignorant  or  the  vicious  is 
a  secondary  matter.  The  teacher  should  expend  his 
effort  where  it  will  pay.  What,  then,  may  be  expected 
from  public  school  teachers  entrusted  with  the  train- 
ing of  subnormal  or  abnormal  children?    If  they  be 


20 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


An  emer- 
gency 
method 


Imposed 

authority 

passes  into 

voluntarily 

accepted 

authority 


SO  trained  that  they  can  from  habit  follow  direction, 
if  their  powers  be  turned  into  some  channel  which  is 
at  least  harmless,  and  helpful  if  possible,  about  as 
much  has  been  accompUshed  as  can  be  done,  and  as 
much  as  can  be  expected  without  expert  treatment. 

The  temporarily  abnormal  are  to  be  found  at  times 
in  every  schoolroom.  They  are  the  pupils  who,  usually 
tractable  and  amenable  to  all  good  influences,  become 
unmanageable  because  of  some  passing  circumstance. 
The  power  of  a  sudden  infatuation,  of  ill-health,  of 
any  absorbing  interest,  may  make  a  temporary  anarch- 
ist of  the  schoolroom's  most  law-abiding  citizen,  by 
overmastering  all  his  customary  standards  and  com- 
pelling absolute  obedience  to  its  demands.  At  such 
times  the  incentives  to  social  conduct  fall  to  lowest 
ebb,  and  the  most  generously  disposed  child  becomes 
a  thorough  and  ruthless  egoist.  Putting  aside  the 
higher  modes  which  usually  prove  efficient,  his  teacher 
may  find  it  necessary  to  exercise  his  bare  authority 
in  such  a  crisis. 

As  in  the  case  of  control  through  personal  influence, 
the  control  of  absolute  authority  should  definitely 
appoint  its  successor.  Good  citizens  submit  to  law 
because  they  beheve  in  its  righteousness,  and,  in  a 
democracy,  because  they  realize  that  it  is  made  by 
themselves  and  their  neighbors,  who  are  in  turn  to 
benefit  by  it.  Good  citizens  in  a  school,  in  like  manner, 
conform  to  its  customs,  observe  its  hmitations,  and 
help  with  its  machinery,  because  they  know  that  ma- 
chinery to  be  devised  for  their  own  good.  The  point 
of  accomplishment  in  the  making  of  a  good  citizen- 
pupil  is  that  at  which  he  begins  to  cooperate  with, 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  21 

where  formerly  he  submitted  to  the  imposed  authority 

of,  the  teacher.     Authority  is  then  no  longer  imposed,  a  changed 

11  M  rr^t  •  •  attitude 

but  IS  accepted  voluntarily.  This  point  comes  to 
some  children  very  early,  and  to  others  late  in  their 
school  career  or  not  at  all.  As  children  are  poor 
generalizers,  it  needs  sometimes  to  be  learned  specifi- 
cally many  times  before  it  becomes  a  principle  for 
general  application.  Even  then,  tradition  and  habit 
may  produce  some  surprising  cases  of  defiance  of  law. 

II.  The  Mode  of  Appeal  to  Personal  Interest 

Following  the  instinctive  obedience  to  parental 
authority  and  its  substitutes,  and  closely  allied  to  that 
first  allegiance,  comes  the  selfish  motive  for  conduct. 
At  first  the  desire  for  self-gratification  leads  usually 
to  defiance  of  authority,  for  children  see  the  immediate 
outcome  and  strive  for  it.  As  the  power  of  thinking 
develops,  however,  and  reasoning  gives  them  an  in- 
sight into  final  gains  and  losses,  children  learn  to  deny 
themselves  an  immediate  gratification  for  an  ultimate 
gain.  When  this  point  in  development  has  been 
reached,  it  is  possible  to  appeal  to  the  child's  sense  of 
self-interest.  He  begins  to  do  things  because  he 
knows  it  is  good  for  him  — ■  either  because  he  reaps 
some  reward  that  is  pleasant,  or  because  he  has  faith 
that  a  given  course  will  bring  him  pleasure  in  the  future, 
as  some  one  has  told  him  it  will.  He  learns  to  balance 
values,  and  to  choose  the  one  which  his  training  and 
disposition  hold  most  worth  while. 

There  is  one  motive  which  may  be  used  at  aU  ages.  The  hope 
although  it  is  probably  most  active  and  potent  during  °^  "wards 
adolescence.     It  may  be  endlessly  varied  and  general- 


22  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

ized.  This  motive  is  the  hope  of  reward,  the  aim 
of  self -improvement  or  gratification.  There  exists  a 
great  and  mistaken  prejudice  against  it,  however, 
which  has  weakened  the  work  of  countless  conscien- 
tious teachers,  who  fear  that  they  encourage  selfish- 
ness and  love  of  personal  gain  in  emphasizing  the  old 
and  universal  law  that  good  begets  good,  and  that 
virtue  brings  a  reward  beside  its  recognition  of  itself. 
Surely  the  reward  in  kind  of  good  and  evil  is  one  prin- 
ciple that  may  safely  be  abstracted  from  human  ex- 
perience, and  is  safely  taught  to  the  young.  Indeed, 
its  apparent  contradictions  form  one  of  the  most  pro- 
Afear  lific  of  all  sources  for  inquiry  into  fundamentals,  and 

faUacy*  consequent  establishing  of  truths  that  do  not  appear 
superficially.  No  better,  no  more  universal,  varied, 
and  obvious  illustrations  of  the  complexity  of  life,  of 
the  unity  of  the  social  fabric,  or  of  the  far-reaching 
ejBfects  of  every  human  act,  can  possibly  exist  than  the 
answers  to  the  questions  that  arise  daily  in  every 
home  and  schoolroom  concerning  the  truth  of  this 
law.  Every  illustration  of  its  application  in  their 
own  lives,  tends  to  strengthen  a  faith  in  its  univer- 
sality and  dependableness,  which  must  function  con- 
stantly and  healthfully  in  controlling  conduct,  both 
in  the  school  and  outside  and  beyond  it. 

Provided  care  is  taken  to  call  attention  to  the  fact 
that  rewards  are  sometimes  long  delayed,  diffused, 
or  subjective  in  character,  the  use  of  the  immediate 
and  concrete  reward  is  harmless  and  commendable. 
There  is  nothing  in  the  rewarding  of  a  deserved  honor 
that  does  harm,  if  the  nature  of  the  reward  is  such  as 
to  be  unobjectionable.     It  is  the  failure  to  recognize 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  23 

and  emphasize  the  unseen  rewards  that  holds  danger; 
the  ignoring  of  that  compensation  to  virtue  which  is 
real  but  indirect,  sure  but  perhaps  long  delayed. 
Every  time  a  child  receives  a  recognized  reward  for  doing 
right,  his  faith  in  the  paying  qualities  of  goodness  is 
increased.  And  this  faith  in  the  absolute  equity  of 
life's  give-and-take,  in  the  indestructibility  of  the 
moral  law,  is  not  the  sordid  and  unworthy  thing  that 
many  teachers  are  disposed  to  call  it.  All  our  faith 
in  the  ultimate  justice  of  human  events  and  in  the 
goodness  of  God  is  bound  up  in  it;  why  should  we 
bhndly  deny  it  to  children?  The  question-begging 
injunction  to  "do  right  because  it  is  right"  has,  in  an 
effort  to  establish  an  impracticable  loyalty  to  a  truth 
too  abstract  for  trained  thinkers  to  comprehend,  done 
incalculable  harm  to  any  nimiber  of  inquiring  young 
people. 

Conversely,  the  punishment  of  evil  as  an  unescap-  Punishment 
able  aftermath  can  not  be  too  much  emphasized.  °*  ®^ 
Here,  owing  to  the  stern  customs  of  our  ancestors  and 
the  rigorous  traditions  of  the  schoolroom,  there  is  not 
the  same  prejudice  to  be  overcome  as  exists  with  regard 
to  the  careful  reward  of  well-doing.  Children  expect 
to  be  punished  if  they  do  wrong  at  school;  teachers 
expect  to  mete  out  justice,  or  at  least  retribution,  to 
sinners. 

This  sense  of  self-interest  is  an  immensely  valuable  Two  ideas 
asset  to  the  teacher.     It  may  be  used  also  in  a  way  ^terest 
to  work  great  harm  to  pupils,  if  selfish  ends  are  justified 
in  the  incentives  held  out  to  children.     If  the  ends 
represented  as   desirable   are   such   as   build  up   fine 
ideals,  the  method  of  appeal  to  self-interest  is  justifi- 


24 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


The 

subjective 

reward 


A  mode  for 
adolescents 


able.  If  material  rewards  are  over-emphasized  (as, 
for  example,  they  have  been  in  the  popular  statistics 
showing  the  money  value  of  honesty  and  good  character 
and  education),  or  preeminence  is  held  up  as  a  thing 
to  be  striven  for,  the  results  will  be  deplorable.  For 
instance,  to  urge  a  child  to  study  that  he  may  win  a 
prize  or  stand  first  in  his  class  is  to  appeal  to  instincts 
that  need  inhibition  rather  than  encouragement;  but 
to  urge  him  to  study  that  he  may  become  a  useful 
man,  a  helpful  and  noble  citizen,  is  to  encourage  the 
sort  of  ambition  that  children  ought  to  have.  The 
mode  is  the  same  in  both  instances,  but  the  ideals 
differ  fundamentally. 

That  is  to  say,  that  while  there  are  material  and 
immediate  rewards  for  doing  right,  which  we  should 
not  deny  nor  conceal,  nor  withhold  unless  they  are 
really  harmful,  there  are  subjective  rewards  which  are 
of  far  more  value  and  permanence.  These  subjective 
rewards  are  the  ones  which  should  be  constantly 
emphasized  as  the  rewards  worth  most  earnest  effort, 
and  the  ones  most  surely  to  be  received.  At  the  same 
time,  there  is  no  inherent  wrong  in  the  statement  of 
the  law  that  right  brings  reward  and  wrong  incurs 
punishment  in  some  form,  inevitably. 

As  children  grow  older,  and  plan  their  lives  more 
consciously,  this  mode  of  control  becomes  more  im- 
portant. Combined  with  that  of  personal  influence, 
it  may  be  instrumental  in  changing  the  whole  course 
of  conduct  of  a  thoughtless  or  antagonistic  pupil. 
Its  most  powerful  allies  are  the  imagination  and  the 
idealizing  quaHties  that  are  strong  in  youth.  To 
arouse  an  indifferent  pupil  from  his  narrow  absorp- 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  25 

tion  in  what  he  is  and  enjoys,  to  a  conception  of  what 
he  may  become  and  accomplish  —  that  is  the  miracle 
that,  once  performed,  may  readily  change  him  into  an 
alert,  interested  person  with  a  motive  for  working. 
In  adolescence,  when  imagination  is  alive,  it  means 
much  to  have  presented  the  material  that  may  furnish 
a  vision  of  the  future.  A  pitifully  large  number  of 
men  and  women  lead  spiritless,  humdrum  lives,  because 
no  vision  of  the  possibility  of  life  came  to  them  in  the 
days  when  they  might  have  gone  on  to  its  realization. 
No  inspiring  speaker,  no  book  written  from  a  great 
heart,  no  trip  from  the  sheltered  and  quiet  home  into 
the  big  world  of  action  and  achievement,  no  picture 
or  song  or  heroic  act,  fired  the  ready  soul  at  the  critical 
time  to  set  a  goal  for  itself  that  would  make  all  effort 
and  sacrifice  worth  while. 

A  reaUzation  of  the  responsibiHty  of  the  school  in  As  it  affects 
this  matter  is  showing  itself  in  the  movement  for  ^^"^ 
vocational  guidance.  Skillful  teachers  who  under- 
stand the  possibilities  of  their  incomparable  calling 
have  long  utiHzed  it,  directly  for  the  final  gain  of  their 
charges,  indirectly  for  the  improvement  of  school 
order.  It  furnishes  an  incentive  of  high  order  if  the 
right  ideals  of  accompUshment  are  united  with  it, 
and  combined  with  the  mode  of  appeal  to  social  re- 
sponsibiUty  makes  the  best  basis  for  motivation. 
Translated  into  concrete  terms  for  pupils,  it  offers 
these  aims  for  good  conduct: 

a.  The  development  of  a  good  brain,   capable  of 
doing  the  thinking  that  may  be  required  of  it. 

b.  The  development  of  skill  of  hand  and  quickness 
of  eye. 


26  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

c.  The  ability  to  make  a  good  living,  growing  out  of 

the  first  two. 

d.  The  ability  to  appreciate  fine  and  beautiful  things. 

e.  A  strong  and  noble  character. 

/.  The  ability  to  serve  one's  generation  well. 
The  choice        jf  this  all-round  aim  be  kept  before  both  students 

of  studies 

and  teachers,  it  means  that  they  will  choose,  in  plan- 
ning courses  of  study,  a  variety  of  exercises  and  activ- 
ities, not  one  narrow  set  of  studies.  There  will  be 
some  of  subjects  requiring  earnest  application  and  real 
thought,  for  even  if  such  do  not  develop  a  general 
intellectual  facility,  they  at  least  prove  ability  for 
hard  work  and  clear  thinking.  There  will  be  no 
neglect  of  manual  training;  writing,  drawing,  the 
playing  of  some  musical  instrument,  carpentering, 
ceramics,  sewing,  cooking,  or  metal  work  —  a  fair 
degree  of  skill  in  several  of  these  the  all-round  man  or 
woman  has. 

Mental  power  and  physical  skill  combine  to  make 
men  and  women  economically  independent,  but  that 
is  not  all  they  need.  The  fatal  fallacy  of  the  trade 
school  lies  in  its  neglect  of  the  heart,  out  of  which  are 
the  issues  of  life.  The  failing  of  the  conventional 
school  curriculum  is  that  it  trains  mind  and  heart  to 
the  appreciation  of  good  things  which  mind  and  hand 
may  not  be  able  to  furnish.  The  boy  or  girl  with  an 
eye  to  his  own  interest,  therefore,  will  plan  to  include 
in  his  course  of  study  much  that  will  develop  taste, 
appreciation,  and  hunger  for  fine  and  beautiful  things. 
He  will  wish  to  learn  something  of  social  service,  of 
the  ways  in  which  he  may  help  his  generation  to  do  its 
work.     Above  all,  he  will  include  as  much  of  ethical 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  27 

culture  of  a  formal  kind  as  may  be,  and  keep  mind  and 
heart  awake  for  the  incidental  inspiration  that  comes 
to  the  watchful. 

It  is  in  this  last  choice  that  the  bearing  of  conscious  The  choice 
self-interest  upon  conduct  and  discipline  appears.  The  °^  <^o°duct 
youth  who  sincerely  wishes  to  make  himself  as  noble 
as  he  can,  must  imderstand  that  he  must  choose,  not 
once  but  time  after  time,  the  best  response  to  the 
situations  that  present  themselves.  He  must  know 
that  the  only  assurance  he  can  have  that,  when  a 
great  temptation  to  do  wrong  comes  to  him,  he  will 
resist  it,  is  that  he  has  habitually  resisted  a  thousand 
little  temptations  to  dishonesty,  discourtesy,  inat- 
tention, laziness,  familiarity,  intemperance,  imper- 
tinence. He  must  understand  that  much  of  his  future 
happiness  or  misery  depends  upon  his  conscious  choice 
of  immediate  or  ultimate  ends,  of  present  fun  that  is 
without  the  law  or  within  it.  Good  disciplinarians 
learn  early  to  impress  the  duty  of  the  right  choice 
upon  students  by  showing  them  the  inexorable  laws  of 
cause  and  effect. 

There  is  a  danger,  it  is  true,  in  using  this  mode  of  The  danger 
appeal  to  self-interest.  It  is  that  boys  and  girls  may  °  e  mo  e 
acquire  an  idea  that  virtue  exists  mainly  for  its  re- 
wards. They  are  good  then  for  revenue  only,  and 
feel  justified  in  forsaking  what  is  right  if  the  promised 
rewards  are  not  forthcoming,  or  if  they  see  law-breakers 
enjoying  prosperity  and  evident  happiness.  There  is 
a  possibility  that  our  ethical  training  may  degenerate 
into  some  such  bargain  with  The  Powers  as  the  Romans 
had  in  their  state  worship.  It  may  become  a  matter 
of  bargain  and  barter,  unless  personal  ideals  of  the 


28  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

highest  nature  animate  it  and  dominate  it.  Religion 
furnishes  the  surest  antidote  to  this  tendency,  but 
religion  is  a  thing  that  may  not  be  taught  in  public 
schools.  Next  best  are  the  ideals  of  personal  honor 
that  the  greatest  literature  and  the  greatest  historical 
Ideals  for  characters  give.  To  gain,  after  years  of  effort,  the 
purity  of  Arthur  and  the  devotion  of  Antigone,  the 
patriotism  of  William  the  Silent,  the  self-mastery  of 
Jean  Valjean,  is  the  goal  which,  kept  steadily  before 
their  eyes,  will  give  to  our  youth  the  strength  to  choose 
to  do  what  is  right. 

III.  The  Mode  of  Control  Through  Personal 
Influence 

In  its  total  power  through  the  formative  period  of 
the  life  of  a  child,  consciously  exercised  personal  in- 
fluence ranks  among  the  first  of  the  elements  in  edu- 
cation. All  good  teachers  wish  to  possess  personal 
influence  over  their  pupils;  there  are  frequent  occasions 
when  it  is  necessary  to  exercise  it.  Many  teachers 
abuse  it  ignorantly,  or  fail  to  use  it  to  the  highest 
and  most  permanent  ends.  It  is  a  primitive  and  a 
dangerous  method  of  control,  a  universal  and  wonder- 
fully potent  one,  and  one  capable  of  the  best  possible 
use. 

Its  danger  lies  in  the  temptation  to  the  teacher  to 
magnify  his  own  power  through  its  exercise,  and  to 
fail  to  appeal  to  the  social  consciousness  of  his  pupils. 
Vanity  is  a  failing  from  which  teachers  are  not  exempt; 
indeed,  the  continued  preeminence  which  schoolroom 
experience  gives  to  the  teacher,  is  liable  to  develop  any 
latent  tendency  to  undue  self-esteem  which  he  may 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  29 

possess.  Few  human  beings  are  above  appreciating 
the  flattery  of  those  who  order  their  conduct  to  please 
them.  In  almost  any  school  building  are  to  be  found 
teachers  who  are  not  averse  to  having  people  know 
that  pupils  who  later  gave  trouble  to  other  teachers, 
were  in  their  grades  tractable  and  industrious.  They 
were  good  for  them  —  owing,  usually,  to  some  charm 
of  maimer,  personal  appearance,  or  trick  of  amuse- 
ment, such  as  captivate  the  easily  aroused  admiration 
of  childhood.  The  use  of  such  personal  assets  in  the 
schoolroom  as  an  initial  means  of  securing  results  is 
wholly  legitimate;  but  to  continue  to  build  on  so 
narrow  a  foundation  is  a  fatal  mistake. 

The  use  of  personal  influence  is  to  be  nicely  differ-  Use  and 
entiated  from  its  unconscious  and  incidental  exercise,  personal 
which  in  itself  forms  one  of  the  great  elements  in  "»fl"ence 
schoolroom  control.  The  mode  of  control  through  con- 
scious personal  influence  is  justifiable  in  the  teaching 
of  young  children,  with  whom  it  must  be  employed 
constantly,  and  with  older  children  who  have  not  been 
aroused  to  a  consciousness  of  their  duty  toward  others, 
nor  received  a  sufficient  emotional  impulse  to  insure 
a  response.  Wherever,  in  fact,  the  modes  of  govern- 
ment by  substitution  and  appeal  to  social  consciousness 
are  impracticable,  and  the  mode  of  authoritative 
control  is  not  necessary,  there  the  personal  influence 
of  the  teacher  may  advantageously  be  used.  The 
strength  of  its  appeal  lies  in  an  emotional  connota- 
tion, usually  very  wholesome,  but  applicable  only  to 
the  case  and  persons  in  point.  Herein  hes  the  essen- 
tial weakness  of  this  mode  of  control.  In  itself  it 
establishes   no  ideal   and   no   habit   which   functions 


30  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

outside   the   schoolroom,   or  in   similar   situations  in 
other    schoolrooms   where   a   different    teacher   is   in 
control. 
The  process       g^^-  j^  jg  possible  SO  to  merge  the  individual  into 

of  socializa-  ^  '^  ° 

tion  the  social  appeal,  so  to  broaden  the  loyalty  which 

urges  the  sought-for  judgment,  that  this  method 
becomes  a  powerful  help  in  establishing  the  ultimate 
mode  of  self-government  through  motives  induced 
by  social  consciousness.  It  shares  this  preparatory 
fimction  with  the  still  older  mode  of  appeal  to  bare 
authority,  or  to  the  force  with  which  that  authority 
is  armed.  It  is  not  so  ultimate,  so  ideal  a  method, 
but  it  may  be  used  for  entirely  righteous  ends  and  in 
the  interests  of  the  ideal  and  ultimate  method. 

GeneraK-  The  process  of  generalization  in  the  mind  of  the 

z&tioii  .     .  .,  . 

pupil  is  not  necessarily  a  conscious  one.  From  the 
motive  of  doing  right  to  please  his  teacher,  or  his 
mother,  or  his  father,  he  may  be  led  easily  and  quickly 
to  wish  to  do  right  to  please  his  schoolmates  as  a  body. 
Much  is  being  done  in  kindergartens  and  primary 
schools,  especially  in  games  and  exercises  devised  for 
the  purpose,  to  develop  a  recognition  of  the  corporate 
nature  of  the  school;  and  the  child  so  trained,  even 
at  the  period  when  the  personal  influence  of  the  teacher 
is  strongest,  is  beginning  to  put  the  needs  of  society 
above  his  own  pleasure  or  that  of  his  personal  friends. 

At  a  period  a  little  later,  especially  in  the  upper  in- 
termediate and  grammar  grades,  loyalty  to  a  "crowd" 
or  "gang"  often  supplants  the  child's  first  loyalty  to 
mother  or  teacher.  The  problem  here  is  a  harder 
one,  for  while  the  personal  influence  of  mothers  and 
teachers  is  usually  exercised  in  the  interests  of  good 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  31 

school  government,  that  of  school  children's  cliques 
is  often  directly  adverse  to  it.  Sometimes  the  fervid 
devotion  is  to  a  single  chum  or  to  a  trio  or  quartet. 
In  any  case,  the  problem  is  not  to  do  away  with  the 
relationship  which  has  captured  the  child's  inherent 
capacity  for  devotion,  but  to  transform  its  personal 
influence  into  a  wholesome  and  healthful  one.  Pres- 
ident Diaz,  organizing  his  efficient  rurales  from  the 
idle  desperadoes  of  his  Mexican  cities;  Mr.  George, 
teaching  the  waifs  of  New  York  City  to  be  good  citizens 
at  Freeville;  Sir  George  Baden-PoweU  with  his  Boy 
Scouts  —  all  have  recognized  the  instinctive  nature 
of  crowd-loyalty  and  its  possibilities.  To  substitute 
in  the  clique  interests  and  ideals  that  shall  be  construc- 
tive and  not  destructive  is  often  a  really  Herculean 
task,  for  it  amounts  to  remaking  a  whole  set  of  social 
ideas.  It  often  involves  the  education  of  the  parents 
and  the  community  as  well  as  the  group  of  children 
directly  involved. 

In  the  high  school  the  situation  is  always  a  com-  in  the 
plicated  one.  To  the  old  loyalties  to  teachers  and  i"gh  school 
cliques  are  added  new  ones  to  any  number  of  organi- 
zations, to  chums  and  sweethearts,  and  even  to  adored 
authors,  public  characters,  and  "causes."  To  make 
these  varied  allegiances  and  influences  potent  for  good 
school  government  is  a  complicated  task,  the  more  so 
because  adolescence  is  inclined  to  be  reticent  with 
regard  to  the  influences  which  are  at  the  time  most 
powerful.  Some  personal  influences  are  so  harmful 
that  no  ingenuity  can  devise  a  means  of  turning  them 
to  good  account.  They  must  simply  be  inhibited  if 
possible.     Others,    long    regarded    as    evil,    are    now 


32  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

coming  to  be  recognized  as  natural  and  good,  but 
needing  direction  and  training. 

But  for  practical  purposes,  that  influence  which 
still  remains  in  the  high  school  of  most  use  to  the 
teachers  in  securing  good  order,  is  the  teacher's  own, 
consciously  and  unconsciously  exercised.  The  beauti- 
ful ideahsm  of  youth,  that  sees  so  often  in  a  teacher 
the  inspiring  personaUty  which  it  is  a  joy  to  follow, 
lends  itself  with  equal  pleasure  to  the  joy  of  pleasing 
so  charming  a  mentor.  Thousands  of  boys  and  girls 
in  American  high  schools  meet  for  the  first  time  in  a 
teacher  a  person  of  refinement,  of  intellectual  leader- 
ship, even  of  attractive  personal  appearance.  These 
qualities  open  to  the  eager  search  of  youth  a  new  world 
of  beauty  and  worth,  and  the  directing  deity  has  but 
to  point  the  way  and  the  enamored  discoverer  follows. 
Even  where  poverty  and  ignorance  do  not  give  so 
pathetic  a  background  to  these  personal  enthusiasms 
of  pupils  for  teachers,  they  are  among  the  strongest 
of  all  influences  upon  adolescents. 
An  example  The  writer  recalls  one  gracious  white-haired  lady, 
for  years  principal  of  the  high  school  in  a  town  of  the 
Middle  West,  whose  personal  influence  over  two  gener- 
ations of  boys  and  girls  unquestionably  did  more  than 
anything  else,  not  only  to  fix  standards  of  conduct  in 
the  high  school,  but  to  sound  the  social  keynote  of 
that  town.  Her  ideas  of  good  taste,  courtesy,  and 
honor  moulded  the  public  opinion  and  the  customs  of 
her  high  school  to  such  an  extent,  that  during  her 
regime  there  was  never  any  serious  trouble  on  account 
of  disorder.  She  failed,  however,  just  where  a  teacher 
of  strong  personality  is  liable  to  fail  —  in  generaliza- 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT         33 

tion.  The  younger,  less  experienced,  and  less  in- 
fluential principals  who  succeeded  her  had  a  most 
unhappy  experience  with  a  set  of  young  people  who 
had  been  been  kept  too  strictly  in  moral  leading  strings. 
Without  the  strong  and  wise  personal  guidance  and  con- 
trol to  which  they  were  used,  they  "ran  wild."  Appeal 
to  school  loyalty  was  useless;  no  such  sentiment 
existed.  They  had  been  brought  up,  first  by  their 
parents,  then  by  the  principal  herself,  in  the  nurture 
and  admonition  of  a  personal  loyalty  to  a  woman  whose 
word  was  admittedly  final.  No  person  new  to  the 
community  could  possibly  have  had  her  personal  hold 
upon  pupils  and  parents.  Two  principals  failed  in 
that  high  school  before  a  man  was  found  with  sufl&- 
cient  personal  charm  to  manage  things  in  the  accus- 
tomed way.  At  present  the  school  is  on  its  old  footing, 
with  a  calm  and  unruffled  exterior,  and  with  an  inner 
life  fully  as  free  from  the  disturbing  commotion  of 
growth.  When  the  fortuitous  circumstance  of  a  prin- 
cipal with  a  winning  personality  is  no  longer  respon- 
sible for  its  smooth-running,  the  school  will  "go  to 
pieces"  again.  Its  peace  and  order  and  industry  are 
founded  upon  no  stable  principle,  its  students  base 
their  law-abiding  on  no  conscious  loyalty  to  an  insti- 
tutiop  or  to  the  will  of  society  at  large,  which  made 
the  institution. 

To  effect  the  transfer  of  allegiance  from  the  teacher 
to  the  comparatively  abstract  conception  of  the  good 
of  the  school,  or  even  to  the  pupil's  own  future,  is  no 
easy  process.  It  is,  moreover,  one  requiring  some 
self-abnegation.  It  involves  a  very  old  kind  of  sacri- 
fice, in  which  individual  preeminence  is  given  up  to  an 


34  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

ultimate  social  gain.  And  it  is  a  sad  fact  that  teachers 
are  found  in  our  schools  who  deUberately  and  selfishly 
cultivate  personal  devotion  in  their  pupils,  making  no 
effort  whatever  to  divert  it  from  themselves  to  more 
general  channels.^ 

The  period  of  adolescence  is  one  which  especially 
demands  wise  personal  guidance.  "To  neglect  the 
child  at  this  time,"  said  Plutarch  long  ago,  "unbars 
the  doors  to  vice."  Sympathy  and  encouragement, 
restraint  and  guidance,  must  be  offered  tactfully  and 
administered  skillfully.  Boys  need  men  teachers  of 
good  sense  and  honor;  girls  require  women  teachers 
who  understand  them,  and  who  are  personally  attrac- 
tive enough  to  win  their  confidence.  One  sincere 
friendship  for  a  wise  teacher,  emotionalized  by  admira- 
tion to  the  point  where  the  approval  of  the  beloved 
guide  is  worth  every  effort,  will  do  more  to  establish 
good  habits  and  inspire  high  ideals  than  all  the  lectures, 
self-government  schemes,  good  literature,  and  speech- 
making  that  the  best  high  school  can  give. 

1  This  remark  applies  only  to  personal  devotion  functioning  as  a 
motive  in  promoting  right  conduct  in  school.  Of  course  there  can 
be  no  possible  condemnation  for  the  closest  personal  friendship 
between  teachers  and  pupils. 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT   (Cortinued) 

IV.  The  Mode  of  Wholesome  Repletion 

It  is  said  of  General  Arney,  a  leader  in  the  move-  Theimpene- 
ment  for  the  relief  of  Kansas  in  the  'so's,  and  later  t;;^i>i"tyof 

^       '  attention 

governor  of  Oklahoma,  that  he  could  write  two  letters 
simultaneously,  one  with  each  hand,  and  carry  on  an 
animated  conversation  at  the  same  time.  Such  in- 
stances of  the  division  of  attention  always  arouse 
incredulity  before,  and  wondering  admiration  after, 
their  verification.  They  occur  rarely,  even  among  the 
most  gifted  and  versatile  thinkers.  Young  children, 
as  well  as  the  great  majority  of  adults,  can  give  atten- 
tion to  but  one  thing  at  a  time.  The  attention  of 
children  is  easily  diverted,  and  the  rapidity  with  which 
it  changes  may  give  a  false  appearance  of  its  simultane- 
ous direction  toward  several  different  interests.  But 
stimuli  act  in  succession,  and  the  constant  choice 
between  them  gives  to  the  judgment  its  greatest  exer- 
cise and  means  of  development. 

This  incompatibility  of  directed  attentions,  which  Theimpene- 
may  be  called  —  to  borrow  a  term  from  Physics  —  the  fntet^t  °^ 
Impenetrability  of  Attention,  gives  rise  to  the  corollary 
of  the  Impenetrability  of  Interest.    One  interest  at 
a  time  holds  the  exclusive  attention  of  the  simple, 
directly-working  mind  of  a  child.     To  train  the  child 


36  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

so  that  these  periods  of  exclusive  attention  shall  be 
long  enough  to  give  appreciable  results,  is  one  of  the 
chief  aims  of  imposed  disciplinary  activities.  But  the 
initial  and  fundamental  condition  is  not  the  result  of 
training;  it  is  an  inherent  psychological  characteristic. 
It  gives  to  the  teacher  of  children  one  of  the  principal 
means  (f  directing  the  development  of  good  habits, 
since  it  is  possible  to  make  desirable  stimuli  so  obvious 
that  attention  must  perforce  respond,  to  the  exclusion 
of  those  stimuh  which  have  been  made  as  unobtrusive 
as  possible.  Since  the  child  can  give  attention  to  but  one 
thing  at  a  time,  the  prominence  given  to  stimuli  to  whole- 
some action  tends  to  inhibit  response  to  unwholesome 
stimuli.  This  law  lies  at  the  root  of  the  third  great 
mode  of  school  goverrmient,  that  which,  for  want  of  a 
better  term,  we  are  calling  the  mode  of  Wholesome 
Repletion.^  It  is  that  method  of  control  and  develop- 
ment which  seeks  to  kill  unhealthful  and  destructive 
tendencies  by  disuse;  to  crowd  out  the  bad  by  the  good, 
until  habit  and  taste  are  so  fixed  that  those  stimuli 
that  might  once  have  excited  a  ready  response  have  no 
effect. 
"  Busy-  Concrete  examples  of  this  mode  of  government  are 

help  to  without  number.     They  include  all  the  devices  em- 

good  order  ployed  from  time  immemorial  to  keep  children  out  of 
mischief.  The  "busy- work"  of  the  primary  grades, 
which  really  affords  a  variety  of  positive  and  desirable 
training  for  hand  and  brain,  confesses  in  its  name  its 
aim  and  origin,  which  is  the  purely  negative  one  of 
emplojdng    attention    during    the    intervals    between 

1  The  inaccuracy  of  the  term  is  granted,  but  its  application  to 
the  mode  described  is  too  close  to  be  sacrificed. 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  37 

concentration  on  lessons.  Busy-work  may  defeat  its 
own  purpose,  and  become  a  hindrance  rather  than 
an  aid  to  good  order,  under  certain  conditions: 

1.  It  is  not  helpful  if  it  lacks  an  essential  intrinsic 
appeal  that  is  stronger  than  the  always  ready  stimuli 
to  voluntary  attention.  It  must  be  interesting. 
Bright  colors,  beautiful  texture,  the  reasonableness  of 
the  task  or  problem,  the  challenge  to  successful  imita- 
tion, the  desire  of  making  a  present  to  mother  or  some 
other  dear  one  —  these  are  some  of  the  characteristics 
or  incentives  that  give  interest  to  busy-work.  The 
appeal  must  be  simple,  direct,  and  strong  to  compete 
successfully  with  the  call  of  schoolroom  fun,  the  con- 
stant play  of  surrounding  movement  and  event,  that 
appeal  to  a  child  to  give  his  attention  to  the  life  about 
him. 

2.  It  must  be  changed  frequently,  lest  attention, 
jaded  by  too  long  appUcation,  recoil  so  far  as  not 
wilUngly  or  easily  to  be  brought  back. 

3.  It  must  be  quiet  and  orderly,  or  it  causes  more 
confusion  than  it  cures.  Teachers  have  been  known 
to  employ  children  not  engaged  in  lessons  by  having 
them  clean  blackboards,  sort  pencils,  or  distribute 
materials.  The  movement  and  noise  disturb  others 
who  are  trying  to  concentrate  on  lessons. 

Any  motive  which  gives  an  intrinsic  interest  to  the  Motivation 
regular  school  tasks  tends  to  direct  a  degree  of  atten-  ^terest  to^ 
tion   to   them   which   excludes   illegitimate   interests,  studies 
Therefore  all  devices  and  varieties  of  motivation  are 
properly  classed  with   the  methods  of  the  mode  of 
Wholesome  Repletion.     The  vividness  given  to  school 
studies  by  thorough  equipment  and  the  best  methods 


38  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

of  presentation  gives  a  pleasant  connotation  to  the  real 
work  of  the  school,  which  tends  to  outvalue  the  call  of 
fun  and  mischief. 

The  Mode  of  Wholesome  Repletion  in  the 
High  School 

The  character  of  the  school  as  a  preparatory  institu- 
tion becomes  less  pronounced  as  the  possibilities  of  its 
preparatory  function  unfold.  That  is  to  say,  as  we 
reaHze  how  various  and  how  eflScient  its  training  may 
be,  that  training  acquires  more  and  more  of  intrinsic 
interest,  and  the  hfe  of  the  high  school  gains  an  im- 
portance entirely  aside  from  its  value  as  preparation. 
The  preparation  is  more,  not  less  efficient  than  formerly, 
but  the  immediate  value  and  pleasure  of  its  activities 
eclipse  their  final  purpose  in  the  minds  of  the  students. 
The  high  school  is  a  place  wherein  people  live,  not  an 
ante-chamber  and  waiting-room  to  life.  As  its  life 
becomes  richer,  more  complicated,  more  and  more  a 
replica  of  the  great  life  beyond  and  outside  it,  organiza- 
tions devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  specific  interests 
spring  up  within  it.  Literary  societies,  athletic  asso- 
ciations, class  teams  and  school  teams  in  tennis,  de- 
bating, rowing,  clubs  for  everything  from  Browning  to 
folk-dancing,  and  even  secret  societies  that  imitate  the 
Greek-letter  fraternities  of  college  life,  have  followed 
the  introduction  of  a  broader  spirit  and  an  enlarged 
curriculum  into  the  secondary  school. 
Two  kinds  The  tendency  to  organization  is  of  two  kinds.  There 
tion^^°^^^~  ^^^  children  who,  left  to  themselves,  organize  as  nat- 
urally as  they  breathe;  and  there  are  others  who 
require  as  definite  a  tutoring  in  this  art  as  in  reading 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  39 

and  writing.  The  spontaneous  type  of  organization 
expends  its  energy  largely  in  the  fascinating  business 
of  exclusion;  it  is  negative  rather  than  positive,  and 
gives  us  the  gang  and  the  cHque,  with  rites  and  secrets 
and  an  exaggerated  personal  loyalty  to  members.  On 
the  other  hand,  positive  and  constructive  organization 
among  young  people  is  almost  wholly  imitative.  Much 
of  the  great  value  of  high  school  organization  Hes  in 
the  opportunity  of  teachers  to  supervise  and  direct. 
Here  teachers  may  come  into  close  personal  contact 
with  pupils  upon  the  common  ground  of  voluntary 
interests;  and  through  the  medium  of  those  interests 
exert  an  influence  impossible  to  the  more  formal  pur- 
suits of  the  classroom. 

A  certain  small  proportion  of  high  school  students  The 
find  in  lessons  alone  an  absorbing  interest.  These  adolescence 
students  —  these  "digs"  who  would  rather  make  a 
star  recitation  than  take  a  city  —  are  rarely  disposed 
to  give  any  trouble  to  teachers.  Their  moral  digres- 
sions, like  their  numbers,  are  neghgible.  But  the 
great  majority  of  high  school  boys  and  girls  regard 
the  curriculvun  as  a  necessary  excuse  for  a  variety  of 
delightful  relations  and  pursuits,  which  appeal  per  se 
to  their  imagination  and  love  of  action.  The  motives 
for  study  are  often  remote  and  artificial,  accepted  on 
faith  as  presented  by  parents,  teachers,  and  long 
established  custom.  Even  where  they  are  real,  they 
appeal  rather  to  a  cold-blooded  self-interest  than  to 
any  immediate  need  or  wish.  But  athletics  and  social 
affairs  and  fascinating  arts  like  photography  have  a 
direct  appeal.  A  hundred  new  things  beckon  to  the 
aroused  spirit  of  youth;    a  hundred  voices  call,  all 


40  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

strange  and  sweet,  and  youth  will  answer  to  the  most 
insistent.  If  free  choice  he  given  among  as  many  special 
activities  as  the  size  and  equipment  of  the  school  permit, 
and  then  freedom  to  divert  into  the  channel  of  these  special 
interests  all  the  energy  remaining  from  the  thorough 
performance  of  regular  school  duties,  there  will  he  left 
little  of  youthful  spirits  to  he  kept  from  evil. 

With  all  its  possibilities,  this  mode  of  control  requires 
very  careful  planning  and  still  more  careful  manage- 
ment. Under  careless  or  tactless  supervision  it  may 
produce  disastrous  results.  Here  are  some  reasons  for 
its  failure,  partial  or  complete,  in  some  high  schools 
where  it  has  been  tried  and  found  inadequate  or  un- 
satisfactory: 
Why  high  i.  Inexperienced  children  and  youths  are  permitted 

organiza-       ^0  Organize  and  manage  their  extra-curricular  activities 
tions  fail       without  close  and  wise  supervision. 

2.  There  is  an  absence  of  the  strict  rule  that  only 
those  who  are  carrying  their  studies  satisfactorily  can 
engage  in  athletics  or  other  special  activities;  or  the 
rule  is  not  conscientiously  enforced.  Consequently 
these  secondary  recreative  activities  come  to  take 
first  place,  and  scholarship  suffers, 

3.  Students  do  not  have  freedom  to  turn  their  atten- 
tion immediately  to  recreative  activities,  upon  finishing 
their  regular  tasks.  This  flaw  in  management  is 
responsible  for  more  of  failure,  perhaps,  than  any 
other  one  thing.  If  John,  finishing  his  Latin,  has 
permission  to  leave  the  room  at  once  and  go  to  the 
gymnasium,  where  he  is  in  training  for  an  indoor  meet, 
he  will  work  hard,  leave  the  assembly  room  quietly, 
and  disturb  no  one.     If  Louise,  having  written  and 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  41 

copied  her  theme,  is  free  to  go  to  the  rest-room  and 
embroider  the  front  of  her  new  blouse,  she  will  not 
spend  her  spare  time  in  writing  notes  to  the  other  girls, 
who  have  not  finished  their  themes  yet  but  who  do 
not  object  to  interruption.  John  and  Louise  have  not 
only  aided  in  upholding  schoolroom  order,  but  they 
have  had  a  motive  for  learning  to  work  with  concentra- 
tion and  energy.  The  iron-bound  rule  of  "No  passing 
between  classes"  probably  lessens  confusion  in  the 
halls  to  promote  it  in  the  assembly-room. 

4.  Some  high  school  clubs  do  not  offer  open  member- 
ship to  all  who  can  qualify.  It  destroys  the  democracy 
of  the  high  school  to  allow  young  people  to  elect  or 
reject  members.  It  encourages  snobbishness  by  giving 
full  play  to  the  often  blundering  judgment  of  youth. 
A  posted  statement  of  the  membership  qualifications, 
dues,  and  duties  of  each  high  school  society  or  team, 
with  limited  membership  decided  by  supervised  com- 
petition, seems  the  fairest  and  best  way  of  controlling 
membership.  The  natural  tendency  of  human  beings 
to  flock  in  congenial  cUques,  with  a  penal  system  by 
which  offending  members  are  denied  privileges,  may 
be  depended  upon  to  keep  the  membership  fairly 
homogeneous  and  friendly. 

Without  entering  into  an  extended  discussion  of 
them,  a  word  may  be  said  here  about  high  school  mgh  school 
secret  societies.  They  exist  with  no  thought  of  the  g®^[g«gg 
good  of  all  the  school,  nor  do  they  answer  any  real 
need  of  high  school  pupils  that  can  not  better  be 
met  in  other  ways.  It  is  true  that  they  do  absorb 
practically  all  the  time  of  their  members  that  is  not 
spent  in  school  work,  and  that  by  setting  up  a  distinct 


42  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

line  of  cleavage  between  Greeks  and  "barbs,"  they 
may  even  lessen  the  tendency  to  schoolroom  disorder. 
It  is  usually  true  that  members  of  high  school  Greek- 
letter  societies  do  not  indulge  in  the  fooHsh  tricks  and 
pranks  to  which  other  students  are  given;  their  absurd 
imitation  of  their  elders  extends  to  premature  sophisti- 
cation that  scorns  all  childish  things.  Their  mischie- 
vous instincts  are  expended  in  ways  far  more  injurious 
to  them,  and  far  harder  for  school  authorities  and 
parents  to  combat. 
They  can  The  intrinsic  evil  of  the  high  school  fraternity  lies 

not  be  partly  in  the  impossibility  of  its  effective  supervision. 

Left  to  themselves,  its  members  are  pretty  sure  to  adopt 
the  superficial  hall-marks  of  the  more  spectacular  of 
the  college  models;  the  real  objects,  Hke  the  real  need, 
of  the  college  fraternity  do  not  enter  into  their  con- 
sciousness. As  an  aid  to  good  order  and  a  good  spirit 
in  the  school,  the  secret  society  has  shown  itself  a 
clear  failure,  both  with  regard  to  its  own  members 
and  to  outsiders.  Where  they  do  not  exist,  teachers 
will  do  well  to  allow  them  no  foothold;  where  they 
are  to  be  found,  the  problem  of  their  management  or 
expulsion  must  be  dealt  with  as  local  conditions  indicate. 
The  end  Fortunately    a    growing   pubUc    sentiment    against 

insight  them  presages  their  extinction  at  no  very  distant 
date,  even  without  the  united  influence  of  the  college 
fraternities  and  sororities,  which  is  now  directed 
against  them.  This  attitude  of  the  college  societies 
will  probably  accompUsh  what  all  the  arguments  of 
good  sense  and  expediency  have  not  been  able  to  effect, 
and  the  next  few  years  will  see  the  end  of  the  fraternity 
obsession  among   high    school   boys  and  girls.    The 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT         43 

evil  of  caste  consciousness,  however,  which  is  the 
backbone  of  such  societies,  will  remain  when  this 
especial  manifestation  is  done  away,  unless  care  is 
taken  to  build  up  healthy  ideals  of  school  equality  and 
courtesy. 

The  social  organizations  in  any  high  school  should  utiUzing 
be  answers  to  a  real  need,  growing  out  of  that  need  and  interests  of 
of  the  consciousness  that  the  school  authorities  stand  ^^^  ^'^^°''^ 

students 

ready  to  sanction  and  foster  whatever  is  for  the  real 
pleasure  and  benefit  of  the  students.  Existing  in- 
terests, wholesome  in  nature  and  effect,  when  extensive 
enough  to  warrant  it,  should  be  able  to  effect  organiza- 
tion with  the  hearty  cooperation  of  the  faculty.  It  is 
a  foolish  waste  of  energy  and  time  to  try  to  efifect 
organizations  to  create  interests.  These  were  better 
developed  quietly  by  individual  efifort  of  teachers  and 
students,  until  enough  pupils  are  really  interested  to 
demand  a  club  or  committee  or  team. 

Any  activity  flourishes  better  under  the  care  of  a  interest, 
regularly  organized  body  than  when  left  to  the  hit-  ^^gjj? 
or-miss  direction  of  a  group  of  irresponsible  people,  organization 
however,  and  when  enough  people  to  form  a  club  have 
become  actively  interested  in  it,  it  is  best  to  organize. 
Organization  is  usually  the  least  of  the  anxieties  of 
teachers  who  want  to  improve  school  spirit  and  be- 
havior by  wholesome  occupation  of  time  and  attention. 
The  more  difficult  part  of  the  process  is  the  arousing  • 
of  the  initial  interest  that  warrants  organization.    Un- 
failing tact,  energy,  and  enthusiasm  are  needed  for  the 
task  of  creating  new  channels  for  youth's  "long,  long 
thoughts,"  and  redirecting  into  these  more  wholesome 
ways  energies  that  are  being  spent  to  no  good  purpose. 


44  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

Establishing  The  first  Step  IS  to  find  where  the  interests  of  students 
ineress  ^^  -^^  many  rural  communities  and  small  towns 
there  seems  to  be  a  lack  of  adequate  activities,  and  the 
young  people  exist  in  a  semi-comatose  state,  deterred 
from  actual  mischief  by  Puritanic  tradition,  but  equally 
inactive  along  the  line  of  the  healthy  enterprises  that 
they  should  be  carr)dng  on.  In  larger  places  the 
activities  of  adolescence  have  often  been  badly  directed, 
perhaps  by  those  who  profit  by  commercializing 
entertainment.  Here  they  need  redirection,  while  in 
the  case  of  country  children  they  must  be  created  or 
at  least  stimulated.  Some  organization  is  often 
necessary  even  in  the  first  stages  of  establishing  a 
new  enterprise,  as  for  instance  in  starting  the  game  of 
tennis  where  it  has  not  been  played  before.  A  division 
into  teams  is  a  device  that  arouses  the  interest  that 
comes  from  emulation.  But  this  initial  organization 
is  an  imposed  one,  to  merge  after  a  time  into  a  more 
thorough  one  suggested  by  the  students  when  their 
interest  has  been  deepened  by  pleasurable  experience. 
That  is  to  say,  it  is  useless  to  attempt  to  base  this 
mode  of  control  upon  artificial  interests;  they  must 
be  genuine  and  intrinsic  or  any  good  results  obtained 
through  the  charm  of  novelty  will  soon  pass  away, 
proving  the  waste  of  time  and  effort  involved. 
Nature  of  Being  satisfied,  then,  that  there  exists  enough  in- 

terest to  justify  an  organization,  the  question  of  its 
nature  and  form  is  next  to  be  decided.     Three  require- 
ments for  students'  societies  need  constantly  to  be 
kept  in  mind: 
They  must  be  democratic. 
They  must  be  effective. 


organization 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  45 

They  must  be  so  managed  as  to  keep  the  auxiliary 
interests  of  the  school  subordinate  to  its  main 
purpose. 
The  first  of  these  conditions  is  fulfilled  if  the  member-  Regulating 
ship  of  a  society  be  open  to  all  who  have  met  the  membership 
entrance  requirements,  decided  upon  by  the  faculty  or 
by  faculty  and  members  acting  together.  Scholarship 
is  the  most  important  of  these,  for  it  is  a  regulation 
that  appeals  to  the  common  sense  of  everyone  that  no 
student  should  be  permitted  to  engage  in  extra-curri- 
cular activities  unless  he  have  carried  his  regular 
studies.  In  some  schools  the  further  quaUfication  of 
congeniality  is  so  highly  valued  that  members  are 
given  the  right  to  blackball  an  applicant  in  certain 
clubs  without  giving  any  reason  for  their  action. 
This  is  a  practice  to  be  discouraged,  for  it  leads  almost 
inevitably  to  snobbishness  and  the  growth  of  foolish 
prejudices.  Members  may  be  given  the  right  to 
blackball  an  applicant  in  certain  clubs,  providing  the 
members  are  willing  to  give  the  reason  for  their  action 
to  their  faculty  adviser.  In  a  majority  of  cases  even 
this  privilege  were  better  withheld,  especially  in  the 
large  athletic  and  literary  organizations.  For  similar 
reasons,  it  is  better  not  to  allow  high  school  societies 
to  extend  invitations  to  membership,  except  where 
such  invitations  are  directly  contingent  upon  the 
attaining  of  high  rank  in  some  subject,  or  the  render- 
ing of  signal  service  to  the  school,  when  they  become 
honors  that  are  open  to  all.  The  knowledge  that  any 
society  in  the  school  is  open  to  any  student  who  can 
satisfy  the  requirements  of  scholarship  and  of  the 
special  ability  needed,  is  a  valuable  spur  to  effort  and 


46 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


Effective- 
ness 


Keeping 
them  "  in 
their  place" 


an  assurance  of  a  healthy  democratic  spirit  in  the 
school. 

The  second  necessity,  that  of  effectiveness,  is  not  so 
easily  disposed  of.  A  good  general  rule  for  those  who 
are  treading  new  ground  is  to  keep  the  first  organiza- 
tion very  simple,  appointing  or  electing  officers  for 
whom  there  is  real  work  to  be  done,  and  carefully  adapt- 
ing the  usual  functions  of  such  officers  to  the  present 
needs.  Similar  societies  in  other  schools  offer  good 
suggestions,  but  should  not  be  copied  slavishly,  since 
the  initiative  and  persistence  of  students  differ  so 
widely.  Small  administrative  bodies,  of  course,  are 
the  most  effective;  but  on  the  other  hand,  the  success 
of  yoimg  people's  societies  depends  so  largely  upon 
giving  all  something  to  do,  that  a  large  number  of 
officers  and  committees  are  usually  included  in  the 
management.  Standards  of  efficiency,  established  care- 
fully at  the  beginning,  with  provision  for  the  dismissal 
of  trouble-making  or  lazy  officers,  are  precautions 
which  it  is  wise  to  adopt. 

The  maintenance  of  the  third  requirement  depends 
upon  the  vigilance  of  the  teachers.  If  checked  at 
regular  intervals,  and  if  methods  are  provided  by  which 
students  who  fall  below  a  fair  standard  are  deprived 
for  a  time  of  their  special  privileges,  or  even  of  active 
membership  in  the  societies  to  which  they  belong, 
scholarship  —  by  which  is  meant  here  a  fair  degree  of 
accomplishment  in  studies  —  may  easily  be  kept  in 
its  proper  place  as  the  leading  interest  in  the  school. 
The  machinery  by  which  students  are  reinstated  when 
neglected  work  has  been  made  up,  should  be  as  prompt 
and  siure  in  its  workings  as  that  by  which  they  are 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  47 

shut  out  of  these  activities  when  they  fail  to  meet 
requirements.  A  very  large  part  of  the  trouble  and 
deHnquency  caused  by  overdone  athletics  and  social 
affairs,  could  be  prevented  by  quicker  and  surer  means 
of  controUing  participation.  Every  school  in  which 
there  are  several  societies  and  athletic  teams  should 
have  sets  of  blank  permissions  and  suspensions,  to 
faciliate  this  process  of  adjustment  of  privilege  to 
standing  in  classes. 

The  special  interests  utilized  for  social  development  The 
in  high  schools  are  almost  without  number,  but  they  interests 

°  '  ■'    utilized 

fall  easily  into  a  few  loosely  defined  classes.  There 
are  those  which  are  purely  athletic,  musical,  literary, 
or  forensic.  There  are  recreational  clubs  based  upon 
physical  exercises  of  various  kinds  —  dancing,  includ- 
ing the  folk-dancing  so  deservedly  popular,  tennis, 
boating,  "hiking,"  and  camping.  Added  to  these  are 
the  clubs  organized  to  encourage  the  dilettantism  of 
students:  the  camera  clubs,  the  wireless  circles,  the 
foreign  language  conversation  meetings,  societies  for 
the  study  of  plays,  pictures,  and  poUtics,  travel  clubs, 
and  social  settlement  associations,  or  other  altruistic 
efforts.  Lastly,  there  are  the  purely  social  organiza- 
tions, which  are  of  two  kinds:  those  which  are  elastic 
and  democratic  in  membership,  and  those  which 
gratify  the  tendency  to  exalt  exclusiveness  by  organ- 
izing it.  The  democratic  sort  of  social  activity  may 
be  fostered  best  as  a  natural  accompaniment  to  other 
interests  —  by  permitting,  for  instance,  each  high 
school  organization  to  give  one  party,  properly  super- 
vised and  chaperoned,  each  year  or  each  semester. 
The  second  kind  of  organization  leads  to  the  fraternity 


48  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

or  sorority,  to  whose  evils  reference  has  ahready  been 
made. 

Adminis-  It  is  necessary  that  there  be  constant  and  friendly 

supervision  of  all  high  school  organizations.  To  this 
end  each  one  should  have  its  faculty  adviser,  who  is 
expected  to  attend  all  meetings,  and  is  responsible  for 
the  measures  and  actions  of  the  society.  He  may  be 
elected  by  the  members  or  appointed  by  the  principal. 
To  prevent  any  shadow  of  scandal  in  money  matters, 
there  should  be  an  auditing  committee  with  at  least 
one  faculty  member,  to  go  over  the  books  of  each  enter- 
prise, preferably  twice  a  year.  In  some  schools  all  the 
societies  put  their  funds  into  the  hands  of  a  faculty 
treasurer,  who  looks  after  the  finances  of  the  different 
organizations  as  part  of  his  regular  work.^ 

Reports  ^  custom  which  lays  emphasis  upon  earnest  aims  is 

that  of  requiring  each  student  enterprise  to  submit  to 
the  school  at  least  once  a  year  a  report  of  work  accom- 
plished. This  puts  a  premium  upon  industry,  encour- 
ages the  carrying  out  of  a  definite  program,  and  exposes 
the  comparative  fruitlessness  of  the  purely  social 
organizations.  It  gives  prominence  to  the  incentive 
of  service.  The  school  orchestra  receives  recognition 
for  its  helpfulness  in  furnishing  music  for  entertain- 
ments, the  glee  club  and  the  debating  teams  and  the 
cooking  club  see  their  work  reviewed  with  fitting 
acknowledgment. 

^  This  is  the  plan  followed  in  the  McKinley  High  School  of  St 
Louis,  which  has  a  large  number  of  student  organizations. 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  49 

The  Psychology  of  the  Mode  of  Wholesome 
Repletion 

The  psychological  explanation  of  the  success  of  this 
mode,  expecially  in  the  high  school,  is  that  of  youth's 
response  to  a  set  of  especially  attractive  stimuli,  which 
flatter  newly-awakened  ambitions  and  emotions.  The 
response  of  youth  to  the  call  of  responsibility,  whether 
confident  or  timid,  gives  a  new  consciousness  of  dignity 
and  worth.  Many  will  bear  witness  to  the  reforms 
that  followed  making  a  bad  boy  monitor  of  his  row, 
or  captain  of  his  team,  or  leader  in  a  debate. 

Similarly,  the  appeal  of  rite  and  ceremony  is  very  ceremony 
strong.  The  instinct  for  complete  and  perfect  form, 
for  effective  symboHsm,  and  for  beauty  all  unite  to 
make  young  people  deUght  in  the  picturesque  and  the 
formal.  Social  ceremony,  which  bores  older  people, 
is  to  them  a  new  and  fascinating  kind  of  amusement. 
Pageants  and  tableaux  delight  them. 

The  play's  the  thing. 

With  the  development  of  the  reasoning  powers  that  inteUectuai 
comes  with  adolescence,  there  springs  up  in  the  minds  ^*™"^ 
of  some  young  people  a  growing  pleasure  in  their  exer- 
cise. To  such  students  geometry  and  physics  offer 
realms  well  worth  exploring,  and  debating  is  a  battle 
royal  with  big  prizes  at  stake.  The  keen  joy  of  solving 
and  proving  a  hard  problem  is  not  unlike  that  of  the 
skater  who  cuts  a  perfect  8  upon  the  ice;  one  has  made 
the  ends  of  thought  meet  in  a  faultless  line,  through 
the  magic  of  a  well-mastered  art. 

The  joy  of  thinking  is  a  revelation;  the  possibilities 
of  thought  startle  the  imagination.     To  such  students, 


50  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

a  wise  teacher  gives  the  greatest  books  he  knows, 
realizing  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  overestimate 
the  capacity  for  thought  in  an  intellect  so  awakened. 
The  brain  is  eager  for  work,  the  mind  hungry  for  food, 
and  a  new  consciousness  of  the  meaningful  world 
that  lies  about,  translates,  illustrates,  and  questions 
the  words  of  books.  That  teacher  does  well,  who, 
finding  a  boy  who  likes  Emerson,  gives  him  Kant; 
who  introduces  the  lover  of  Shakespeare  to  Euripides. 
To  know  greatness  will  not  turn  a  healthy  boy  into  a 
mollycoddle,  owing  to  the  fact  that  incongruities  do 
not  worry  us  in  youth  as  in  maturer  years.  "Consist- 
ency is  the  hobgoblin  of  little  minds"  and  of  grown 
people.  The  boy  who  has  just  been  discussing  the 
theories  of  Mendel  or  the  art  of  Sir  Joshua  is  liable  to 
turn  around  to  shoot  a  paper  wad  at  Washington's 
plaster  nose,  without  any  care  for  the  incongruity  of 
his  transfer  of  interest.  Nevertheless,  the  free  use  of 
intellectual  stimuli,  the  engaging  of  busy  brains  in 
big  thoughts,  does  crowd  out  petty  pleasures  and  silly 
occupations,  and  simplifies  the  problem  of  school-room 
order. 
Emotional         But  while  a  few  students  in  every  school  are  affected 

stimuli  ,  ,  .,  .I'll 

by  strictly  intellectual  stimuh,  all  respond  in  greater 
or  less  degree  to  emotional  ones.  It  is  the  emotional 
element  in  any  study  that  gives  it  life,  interest,  appli- 
cation. History  and  hterature  are  the  two  studies 
most  rich  in  this  content;  civics,  geography,  compo- 
sition, and  languages  may  be  taught  in  a  way  to  make 
their  emotional  worth  felt.  The  beauty  and  mystery 
of  personal  relationships,  of  religious  aspirations,  and 
of  the  life  of  the  great  world,  are  open  now  to  the  com- 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  51 

prehension  of  these  growing  boys  and  girls.  They 
acquire  the  new  knowledge  frankly  or  secretly,  rev- 
erently or  flippantly,  carefully  or  indifferently,  accord- 
ing to  their  different  dispositions  and  training.  But 
their  response  to  the  emotional  side  of  Hfe,  whatever 
their  attitude  toward  it,  is  bound  to  influence  their 
choice  of  interests,  good  or  bad.  It  sends  them  to 
the  best  lectures  and  the  worst  picture-shows.  It 
is  the  fundamental  motive  for  a  hundred  things  that 
look  unemotional  enough.  The  successful  appeal  of 
wholesome  recreations,  as  of  lessons  themselves,  de- 
pends largely  upon  the  amount  of  this  element  that 
can  be  infused  into  the  activity  in  question. 

A  new  emphasis  on  practical  preparation  for  wage-  Ambition 
earning  is  changing  what  has  been  an  important  extra- 
curricular feature  in  some  schools,  into  a  chief  end  and 
aim.  This  is  that  class  of  subjects  of  which  the  aim 
is  to  teach  an  art  or  a  trade,  or  to  help  in  the  choice  of 
a  vocation.  Making  a  strong  appeal  to  ambition, 
these  subjects  have  much  influence,  especially  upon 
the  older  boys  and  girls,  who  are  looking  forward 
definitely  to  the  Ufe  that  Ues  beyond  the  school.  It 
has  led  to  the  formation  of  high  school  clubs  for  the 
study  of  telegraphy,  photography,  sewing,  cooking, 
millinery,  ceramics,  and  cabinet-making. 

Association  with  one  another  tends  to  strengthen 
the  hopes  and  define  the  plans  of  boys  and  girls  who 
have  similar  ambitions.  The  existence  of  a  club  for 
the  study  of  any  art  or  science,  moreover,  calls  atten- 
tion to  it,  and  may  be  instrumental  in  "placing" 
some  children  in  congenial  employments,  who  other- 
wise would  drift  aimlessly  or  take  up  an  occupation 


52  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

in  which  they  would  be  doomed  to  constant  discontent. 
There  is  inspiration  in  the  very  atmosphere  of  a  school 
in  which  a  majority  of  the  students  are  vitally  inter- 
ested in  some  hobby  or  specialty.  There  is  much  of 
that  friendly  clash  of  championship  which  sharpens 
wits  and  strengthens  self-confidence. 

Most  important  of  all,  there  is  in  the  high  school  in 
which  many  clubs  and  societies  exist,  a  chance  for 
leadership  for  all.  Domination  is  demorahzing  when 
it  is  exercised  by  an  immature  youth,  but  wholesome 
leadership  develops  confidence,  the  sense  of  responsi- 
bility, ingenuity,  tact,  firmness,  and  patience.  There 
is  a  chance  for  various  talents  to  work  out  for  pubhc 
good,  in  the  multiform  activities  of  a  well-clubbed 
high  school.  Even  the  shyest  may  be  entrusted  with 
the  chairmanship  of  a  committee  or  the  preparation 
of  a  program,  or  set  to  keeping  records  or  taught 
to  preside  over  a  meeting.  Practically  everyone  else 
is  doing  something  of  the  sort,  which  is  logical  proof  to 
almost  any  child  that  he  may  do  likewise.  Super- 
vision will  eliminate  dangers,  and  every  success  gained 
is  an  encouragement  to  new  efforts.  The  ambition 
aroused  reacts  to  give  new  pyersonal  dignity  and  re- 
sponsiveness, which  in  their  turn  inhibit  childish  ten- 
dencies to  bad  order  or  to  sheer  frivolity.  Thus  this 
phase  of  the  new  order  of  school  activities  helps  in  the 
solution  of  the  old,  old  problem  of  school  discipHne. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE   MODES   OF  SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT   (Continued) 

V.  The  Mode  of  Social  Consciousness 

The  story  of  civilization  is  the  record  of  the  devel-  Making  the 
opment  of  man's  social  consciousness.  As  successively  reution 
larger  groups  have  supplanted  the  individual,  in  man's  conscious 
long  struggle  for  existence  and  for  abundance,  more 
economical  and  beneficial  ways  of  living,  finer  emotions, 
and  bigger-planned  enterprises  have  grown.  Follow- 
ing the  history  of  the  race,  each  child  born  into  the 
world  may  pass  from  a  stage  in  which  its  own  wants 
bound  all  the  stimuli  to  action,  to  the  highest  pinnacle 
of  unselfish  effort  for  all  society.  From  the  standpoint 
of  ethical  training  and  of  social  efficiency,  the  most 
important  function  of  the  school  is  the  part  it  plays 
in  making  the  child's  social  relations  plain  to  him. 
But  within  the  general  end  of  clarifying  to  him  his 
relations  to  the  whole  social  body,  and  awakening  a 
desire  to  serve  that  body,  there  is  a  consonant  and  con- 
tributing specific  aim,  which  serves  the  immediate 
purpose  of  securing  good  school  government.  This 
is  the  aim  of  establishing  a  definite  consciousness  of 
each  pupil's  place  in  the  organic  body  of  the  school, 
that  social  institution  in  which,  after  the  family,  he 
is  most  deeply  and  naturally  interested.  This  estab- 
lishing of  social  consciousness  has  begun,  for  the  family 


54  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

relation,  long  before  the  first  day  of  the  first  grade; 
but  as  there  is  as  yet  no  abstract  conception  to  aid 
in  carrying  it  over  into  a  new  sphere,  the  work  must 
be  freshly  started  for  the  new  relation  when  the  kinder- 
garten or  primary  school  begins.  The  process  is  pro- 
gressive, variable,  and  imending.  It  goes  on  daily 
at  every  stage  of  formal  education.  All  moral  effort 
since  schools  began  has  consciously  or  unconsciously 
been  directed  toward  its  development.  Its  establish- 
ment is  the  fundamental  condition  for  the  mode  of 
self-government  under  direction,  which  is  the  ideal 
sought. 
Rewards  of  With  this  progressive  clarification  of  social  relations, 
sod^*^  t^^  results  of  conduct  agreeing  with,  or  antagonistic 

conduct  to,  those  relations,  must  be  taught.  In  the  school- 
room, concrete  illustrations  of  the  gains  and  losses 
of  social  and  unsocial  conduct  are  numerous.  The 
teacher's  great  work  is  to  call  attention  to  them. 
When  we  do  not  whisper,  the  room  is  quiet,  and  we 
learn  our  lessons  more  quickly;  then  we  all  have  more 
time  for  outdoor  play,  and  home  work  is  lessened  or 
eliminated.  When  we  have  our  own  drinking  cups, 
there  is  small  chance  of  contagion  from  drinking; 
and  with  a  regular  and  full  attendance  we  may  easily 
give  a  concert  or  a  play  that  could  not  otherwise  be 
produced.  Such  statements  of  cause  and  effect  seem 
so  obvious  to  most  grown  people,  that  they  feel  a  sense 
of  fooHsh  triteness  in  carefully  recounting  them  to  the 
children  in  their  care.  But  they  are  really  new  knowl- 
edge at  some  point  in  the  training  of  each  child,  and  the 
risk  of  being  bromidic  is  not  to  be  compared  to  the  risk 
of  failing  to  establish  that  habit  of  thought  —  or  that 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  55 

useful  set  of  easily-recalled  platitudes,  that  passes  for 
a  habit  of  thought  —  which  will  insure  in  even  the  most 
self-centered  a  thrifty  social  spirit. 

The  fostering  care  of  the  teacher  should  work  through  The  results 
his  social  organization  to  the  individual,  as  well  as  for  conduc^*^ 
the  social  organization  through  the  individual.     This 
is  merely  to  say  that  the  teacher  must  be  a  maker  of 
public  opinion  in  his  kingdom.     Several  conventional 
understandings   are   necessary:    that   people   have   a 
right  to  show  their  disapproval  of  behavior  that  in- 
terferes with  their  happiness  or  usefulness;    that  it  is 
the  duty  of  the  properly  selected  ofl&cers  of  society  to  Four  great 
punish  wrongdoers;  that  people  who  want  the  greatest  p"°"p^®^ 
good  to  the  greatest  numbers  are  bound  to  help  these 
authorities  to  find  and  punish  offenders;    and  that 
isolation   (denial  of  the  advantages  that  come  from 
social  cooperation)  is  a  fit  reward  for  the  human  being 
who  abuses  his  social  privileges. 

These  four  ideas,  which  once  established  will  give 
the  support  of  public  opinion  to  any  discipUnary  meas- 
ures a  teacher  may  find  it  necessary  to  take,  can  be 
taught  best  in  the  lower  grades;  and  there  is  the  place 
where  they  should  be  thoroughly  drilled  into  con- 
sciousness. The  third  one  is  especially  important 
and  especially  difl&cult  to  teach,  owing  to  the  perverted 
ideas  of  honor  which  have  descended  to  us  from  our 
ancestors,  trained  to  loyalty  to  a  Umited  group.  These 
medieval  ideas  seem  to  have  found  their  last  and  most 
stubborn  stronghold  in  our  public  schools,  where  not 
a  few  teachers  aid  and  abet  their  perpetuation.  Here 
again  the  consciousness  of  the  organic  nature  of  society 
is  the  fimdamental  need.    We  are  all  a  part  of  the 


56  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

Justice  is  judicial  system,  in  some  seen  or  unseen  way;  we  are 
busSess^  all  vitally  concerned  in  the  punishment  of  wrong,  in 
the  protection  of  our  rights  and  our  institutions.  Our 
own  happiness  and  safety,  consequently,  are  bound  up 
in  its  success,  in  ways  usually  untraceable,  but  some- 
times so  direct  as  to  be  apparent  to  the  most  thought- 
less. Every  boy  and  girl  in  the  school  is  to  some 
extent  responsible  for  its  happiness,  its  order,  its  work. 
The  exercise  of  that  responsibility,  when  occasion 
demands,  not  only  answers  the  immediate  disciplinary 
need,  but  tends  also  to  develop  character  in  a  whole- 
some way. 

Special  Forms  of  School  Government  Founded 
ON  THE  Mode  of  Socla.l  Consciousness 

The  ability  to  govern  himself,  to  control  his  own 
actions  with  the  good  of  both  himself  and  his  fellows 
in  mind,  is  one  of  the  ideals  toward  which  the  character- 
building  of  pupils  is  to  be  directed.  Little  by  little, 
as  they  show  themselves  worthy  of  trust,  the  control 
of  authority  is  withdrawn  and  self-control  takes  its 
place.  There  is  much  danger,  in  a  society  wherein 
democratic  ideals  prevail,  that  self-management  be 
given  before  self-control  has  been  gained.  On  the 
other  hand,  to  withhold  the  right  of  decision  when 
people  are  capable  of  exercising  it  intelligently  is  un- 
just and  foolish,  fatal  to  development,  productive  of 
discontent  and  violence. 
Self-control  What  society  has  as  a  complicated  problem, —  in 
Section  ^^^  solution  of  which  it  blunders  pitifully  but  bravely 
through  every  gradation  of  despotic  repression  and 
democratic  license,  working,  we  may  hope,  finally  to 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  57 

a  satisfactory  end, —  the  school,  which  is  a  little  world, 
the  microcosm  of  society,  has  also  as  its  problem  of 
the  relative  control  of  teacher  and  pupils.  In  an 
ideal  school  system,  in  which  ideal  pupils  work  to  the 
highest  end,  each  boy  and  girl  at  graduation  would 
be  a  citizen  of  the  world,  capable  of  taking  upon  him- 
self all  a  citizen's  responsibihties.  Our  aim  is,  then, 
to  bring  each  pupil  as  nearly  as  may  be  to  the  point 
of  full  self-control  and  purely  ethical  conduct  by  the 
time  he  is  ready  to  leave  the  fostering  of  the  school. 

To  aid  in  realizing  this  ideal,  there  have  sprung  up  Purpose 
during  the  last  few  years  a  number  of  systems  of  partial  °^  ^^^^     , 

°  "^  J  r-  government 

or  complete  pupil-government,  by  which  the  social 
responsibihties  of  pupils  may  be  brought  to  their  atten- 
tion, and  practice  given  in  their  exercise.  A  consid- 
eration of  the  wisdom  of  the  use  of  such  schemes  is 
given  in  a  later  chapter;  at  present,  we  shall  consider 
the  four  types  into  which  all  the  self-governing  schemes 
now  used  may  be  divided.  It  will  be  noted  that 
most  of  them  have  two  features  in  common:  the  at- 
tempt to  develop  character  through  the  imposing  of 
responsibility,  and  the  teaching  of  civics  through  prac- 
tice in  the  forms  of  government.  In  some,  the  latter 
feature  is  kept  strictly  subservient  to  the  main  object, 
which  must  always  be  that  of  increasing  the  spirit 
of  social  loyalty  and  obligation.  In  other  types,  much 
is  made  of  the  formal  machinery  which  parallels  that 
of  city  or  state. 

Since  responsibiUty  comes  both  as  a  reward  and  as 
a  stimulant  to  worthy  behavior,  it  is  important  that  its 
relation  to  each  pupil's  conduct  be  clearly  understood 
before  teachers  and  pupils  agree  to  live  together  under 


58  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

any  formal  scheme  of  so-called  self-government. 
Every  plan  which  has,  so  far,  proved  successful,  seems 
to  depend  upon  two  things:  thorough  and  continuous 
preparation  of  the  pupils  by  training  in  ethics,  and  the 
guiding  mind  of  some  sane,  powerful,  and  magnetic 
leader.  Given  these  two  requisites,  however,  the 
successful  working  of  a  school  system  is  practically 
assured  without  the  imposition  of  an  elaborate  system 
of  pupil-government.  Justice,  kindness,  and  self- 
realization  through  self-activity  will  prevail  where 
these  two  elements  exist,  as  surely  as  in  the  most 
elaborate  school-city  or  school-state.  It  is  largely 
a  question  of  the  desirability  of  expending  the  neces- 
sary time  and  energy  —  usually  a  great  deal. 
Four  pupu-        There  seem  to  be  four  methods,  each  capable  of 

government 

types  much    modification,    by    which    teachers    may    avail 

themselves  of  the  social  instincts  and  ideals  possessed 
by  their  pupils,  to  impose  on  the  pupils  themselves 
the  responsibility  of  their  own  conduct,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  teach  them  their  responsibility  for  others, 
in  relation  to  the  general  body.  If  we  consider  them 
in  the  reverse  order  of  their  relative  emphasis  upon 
the  formal  and  spectacular  phases  of  this  mode  of 
government,  the  first  type  is  that  in  which  there  is 
practically  no  imitation  of  civic  forms,  but  in  which 
the  spirit  of  service  to  all  is  directed  pretty  thoroughly 
by  teachers.  This  is  pupil  cooperation  with  the  modes 
of  control  set  up  by  the  school  authorities.  There 
may  be  a  maximum  of  pupil  responsibility  here,  but 
the  nature  of  that  responsibility  is  defined  by  those 
older  than  the  pupils.  It  lacks  the  powerful  stimulus 
of  decision-making  vested  in  the  school  body.     Per- 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  59 

sonal  accountability  is  made  much  of;  high  ideals 
of  honor  in  teachers  and  pupils  are  essential.  A 
faculty  of  fine  feeling  and  great  dignity  and  power 
is  the  most  helpful  factor  in  making  this  mode  a  suc- 
cess, for  unity  of  feeling  and  unusual  personal  influence 
must  take  the  place  of  prescribed  machinery.  There 
is  a  strong  loyalty  between  students  and  faculty,  and 
a  deal  of  popular  devotion  of  both  to  the  school. 

Obviously,  all  this  requires  a  condition  of  things 
in  general  so  nearly  ideal  that  many  principals  despair 
of  reaHzing  it,  and  turn  rather  to  methods  whose 
greater  novelty  gives  an  initial  impulse  which  carries 
a  long  way  to  success.  No  specific  examples  of  schools 
thus  managed  need  be  given,  for  every  well-managed 
and  successful  school  which  emphasizes  social  obliga- 
tion without  adopting  the  special  machinery  of  a 
civic  organization,  is  working  under  the  plan  of  pupil 
cooperation  with  the  teaching  force.  It  is  simply 
that  method  by  which  teachers  and  pupils  work  to- 
gether in  sympathetic  understanding  of  their  common 
ends. 

A  very  successful  type  of  so-called  self-government  Formal 
is  that  in  which  the  pupils  carry  out  the  forms  of  civic  mfnf  under 
Ufe  under  the  direct  control  of  the  teachers.     Some  faculty 
exercise  of  real  judgment  is  allowed  in  the  settlement 
of  the  innumerable  small  matters  that  require  constant 
adjustment  in  every   school,   but   always  subject  to 
definite  restrictions  by  the   school  authorities.     The 
system  thus  gives  practice  in  the  administration  of 
law,  but  no  real  legislative  or  judicial  powers.     As  a 
means  of  teaching  civics,  this  scheme  is  usually  very 
successful,  while  it  affords  an  opportunity  for  a  sort 


6o  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

of  supervised  habit-forming  that  is  most  valuable. 
But  it  undoubtedly  requires  as  much  or  more  energy 
on  the  part  of  teachers  as  a  more  direct  form  of  govern- 
ment would  require,  so  that  its  chief  value  lies  in  the 
habituation  to  forms  of  social  conformity  and  the  em- 
phasis on  a  socialized  attitude,  which  it  brings  about. 
The  An  excellent  example  of  this  kind  of  supervised  and 

Scho^^*  limited  self-government  is  to  be  found  in  the  Lagrange 
School  of  Toledo,  Ohio.  Miss  Brownlee,  the  former 
principal,  under  whom  the  system  was  begun,  says 
of  it:  "It  may  be  well  to  say  that  the  Lagrange  pupils 
do  not  govern  the  school.  The  teachers  believe  they 
are  too  lacking  in  experience  and  judgment  to  be  self- 
governing.  The  idea  is  to  develop  a  spirit  of  coopera- 
tion, to  give  them,  so  far  as  they  are  qualified,  certain 
duties  to  a  faithful  performance  of  which  they  are 
rigidly  held."  Nevertheless,  the  school  is  thoroughly 
organized  as  a  school  city,  each  room  as  a  ward.  The 
four  upper  grades  form  the  voting  population,  and 
elections  are  held  semi-annually.  There  is  a  mayor, 
a  sanitary  chief,  a  treasurer,  and  a  city  clerk,  with  in- 
spectors appointed  by  the  sanitary  chief,  one  for  each 
two  wards.  The  council  thus  formed  notes  conditions 
and  reports  to  the  principal,  who  communicates  with 
the  teachers  interested. 

On  the  surface,  this  Lagrange  plan  looks  very  like 
many  other  plans  in  which  far  more  power  is  delegated 
to  the  pupils.  But  it  does  not  give  the  essential  res- 
ignation of  power  into  the  hands  of  the  pupils,  which 
characterizes  such  schemes  where  self-government  is 
actual.  Its  successful  working  may  largely  be  attrib- 
uted, as  Miss  Brownlee  says,  to  the  fact  that  prin- 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  6i 

dples  of  honor,  self-control,  kindness,  and  industry  are 
taught  in  that  school  systematically. 

The  sound  principle  of  granting  honors  and  respon-  Actual 
sibilities  as  a  reward  for  good  conduct  and  faithful  P^pii-goj- 

"  ^  _  eminent    as 

service  lies  at  the  root  of  the  Ray  system,  in  use  in  the  a  privilege 
John  Crerar  school  in  Chicago.^  The  system  is  used 
in  all  the  grades,  the  two  tribunes  being  appointed  in 
the  first  two  grades  and  elected  in  the  rest.  These 
tribunes,  who  have  much  real  authority,  wear  a  badge, 
and  in  many  ways  take  the  place  of  teachers.  They 
settle  disputes,  look  after  halls  and  courts,  direct  the 
marching,  listen  to  reports  of  offenses,  take  charge  of 
the  room  when  the  teacher  is  not  present,  and  protect 
the  weak  from  imposition.  All  petty  offenses  are 
carried  to  them,  and  only  the  more  serious  ones  are 
later  referred  to  teachers.  All  the  tribunes  form  a 
council,  which  appoints  administrative  officers. 

Not  all  the  pupils  are  citizens  in  this  little  state. 
Half  or  more  of  each  room  from  the  fifth  grade  upward, 
as  a  reward  for  good  scholarship  and  behavior,  are 
granted  citizenship,  which  is  forfeited  upon  misbe- 
havior. Some  are  elected  to  citizenship,  others  are 
appointed  by  teachers.  They  have  the  liberty  of 
the  building,  and  may  vote  upon  special  questions  that 
arise.  It  will  be  noticed  that  this  system  sets  up  an 
unusually  powerfvd  set  of  incentives  to  good  conduct, 
to  which  the  stock  objection  to  such  incentives  (that 
they  are  artificial)  can  scarcely  be  urged.  Sound 
principles  underlie  the  various  provisions. 

Finally,    there   is   actual   and   universal   pupil-gov-  Actual  seif- 
ermnent,   usually   modeled   after   municipal   or   state  KO'^^^e^t 
*  J.  T.  Ray,  Democratic  Government  of  Schools. 


62 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


The  city- 
school  t]rpe 


A  graded 
system 


forms.  In  these  systems  the  final  authority  is  not  the 
teaching  body,  but  a  set  of  rules  which  have  been 
fashioned  by  the  pupils  themselves.  Naturally,  much 
teacher-influence  goes  into  both  the  making  and  the 
maintenance  of  such  schemes,  but  nominally  there  is 
a  reign  of  law,  administered  by  elected  officers,  inde- 
pendent of  pedagogic  ruling. 

A  well-known  example  of  the  city-school  type  of 
pupil  mutual  government  is  that  organized  at  School 
No.  3,  Manhattan,  New  York  City.  The  principle  of 
reward  of  merit  has  recognition  here  in  the  granting 
of  citizenship  by  charter  to  the  upper  four  grades,  and 
to  individual  pupils  in  the  fourth  grade,  for  good 
behavior.  Disorder  in  the  room  endangers  citizenship, 
which  may  be  revoked  by  the  principal.  Each  room 
is  a  borough,  sending  two  aldermen  to  the  Board, 
which  passes  laws  subject  to  the  mayor's  veto.  The 
mayor,  popularly  elected,  conducts  the  morning  as- 
sembly and  appoints  the  heads  of  the  administrative 
departments.  These  include  a  police  department, 
with  a  chief  who  appoints  five  squads,  a  health  depart- 
ment which  inspects  rooms  and  persons,  a  savings 
department  which  conducts  a  school  bank  under  the 
direction  of  a  teacher,  and  an  educational  department 
to  arrange  for  lectures  and  athletic  events.  There  is 
besides  a  court,  having  three  elected  judges,  and  a 
jury  if  desired,  with  privilege  of  counsel.  It  tries 
cases  and  administers  punishment.  A  city  attorney 
and  court  clerk  complete  the  list  of  officers. 

In  the  State  Normal  School  at  New  Paltz,  New  York, 
there  are  three  school  cities,  graded  in  respect  of  elab- 
oration of  detail  to  suit  the  abilities  of  students  in 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  63 

the  normal,  intermediate,  and  primary  departments. 
Here,  among  the  older  students,  much  is  done  to  teach 
political  principles  and  practices.  Conventions,  elec- 
tions, and  inaugurations  are  held,  and  political  parties, 
the  use  of  the  recall,  the  initiative  and  referendum, 
taxes,  and  proportional  representation,  add  interest 
and  training  value  to  the  system.  The  administrative 
departments  attend  to  the  fire  drill  and  all  needful 
precautions,  public  works  (including  care  of  the  flag, 
the  school  garden,  election  booths,  school  entertain- 
ments, and  athletics,)  health,  and  police  service. 
There  is  a  sheriff  with  appointed  deputies.  The 
faculty  acts  as  a  court  of  appeals,  the  principal  pre- 
siding.^ 

In  this  special  form  of  pupil-government,  it  will  be 
observed,  there  is  opportunity  for  much  dramatizing 
of  the  work  in  civics.  Dramatization  is  an  especially 
vivid  method  of  presenting  any  subject,  and  its  use 
in  a  scheme  for  developing  an  ideal  of  self-control 
may  justify  all  the  energy  which  goes  into  the  building 
up  of  these  elaborate  play-governments. 

Another  type  of  pupil-government  is  modeled  after  Xhestate- 
the  state  rather  than  the  municipality.  The  best-  ^'^^°°^  ^^^ 
known  example  is  the  famous  George  Junior  Republic 
at  Freeville,  New  York.  This  is  a  school  for  city 
waifs,  founded  by  Mr.  WilUam  R.  George.  The 
citizens  during  part  of  their  time  at  this  school,  are 
engaged  in  profitable  work  in  field  and  workshop,  by 
which  the  school  is  partially  supported.    The  boys 

*  All  the  school  cities  together  form  a  school  state,  with  its 
governor,  legislature,  and  judiciary.  For  the  charter  of  a  school 
dty  in  full,  see  Bagley,  Classroom  Management,  pp.  291  ff. 


64  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

elect  a  police  force,  executive  officers,  and  a  legislature, 
which  makes  laws  for  the  community.  Law-enforce- 
ment is  strict  and  impartial,  the  penalties  being  very 
real  ones,  such  as  detention  in  jail  and  the  paying  of 
fines.  The  whole  government,  in  fact,  is  far  from  being 
a  pretense;  it  exercises  all  the  functions  of  a  state. 
Not  a  The  boys  in  this  institution,  however,  are  boys  whose 

situation  experiences  have  enabled  them  prematurely  to  assume 
the  responsibilities  of  men  in  almost  every  way.  They 
are  the  little  men  who  have  made  their  own  way  almost 
from  babyhood,  and  managed  their  own  affairs  from  the 
time  they  were  able  to  walk.  The  trust  imposed  in 
them,  and  the  opportunities  for  exercising  their  abil- 
ities in  a  wholesome  way,  appeal  to  the  best  in  their 
natures.  The  girls,  who  have  their  own  round  of 
duties,  are  also  girls  from  the  city  slums,  to  whom 
trust  and  kindness  are  new  and  powerful  elements 
in  the  general  scheme  of  things.  The  necessity  of  in- 
dustry is  a  real  one,  as  living  expenses  are  paid  from  the 
wages  received  for  labor,  furnished  to  all  the  citizens. 
A  special  coinage,  current  only  in  the  Republic,  is  used. 
The  laws  are  made  by  the  legislature,  and  enforced 
by  the  officers  elected  by  the  citizens.  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  George,  while  they  were  in  charge  at  Freeport, 
assisted  with  the  inspection  of  work,  and  exercised 
a  kindly  supervision  of  work  and  play.  The  school, 
which  has  an  attendance  of  250  in  summer,  has  been 
instrumental  in  effecting  the  reform  of  a  number  of 
its  citizens.  The  power  of  Mr.  George,  back  of  the 
authority  of  the  government  of  the  children  themselves, 
was  of  course  unquestioned. 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  65 

The  adaptation  of  state  government  used  in  the  High  A  workable 
School  at  Warren,  Pennsylvania,  is  probably  more  pj^  ^^^°°^ 
helpfully  suggestive  to  the  average  school.^  Pupil 
government  was  adopted  here  in  1890,  and  is  still 
being  used  with  satisfaction.  All  students  are  citizens, 
the  governing  body  being  a  senate,  eligibility  to  which 
depends  upon  good  scholarship  and  deportment.  Sena- 
tors and  faculty  members  report  misdemeanors  to  the 
principal,  who  in  turn  reports  them  to  the  senate.  The 
senate  acts  as  a  court,  inflicting  the  Hghter  punish- 
ments and  making  recommendations  to  the  faculty  in 
the  more  serious  cases.  All  offenses  in  connection  with 
examinations  are  dealt  with  by  the  faculty.  Teachers, 
however,  do  not  belong  to  the  governing  board. 

Other  forms  of  actual  student-government  are  not  other  types 
modeled  after  the  forms  of  either  city  or  state  organi- 
zation. 

At  the  Thirtieth  Street  Intermediate  School,  Los 
Angeles,  California,  there  are  two  committees,  of  boys 
and  girls  respectively,  who  are  held  responsible  for  the 
conduct  of  pupils  while  out  of  classrooms.  These 
committees  are  composed  of  representatives  from  class- 
rooms, thus  forming  councils  of  boys  and  girls,  which 
discuss  conditions  and  make  rules.  There  is  a  presi- 
dent, for  each  council,  also  a  vice-president  and  secre- 
tary; these  executives  appoint  from  the  membership 
of  the  councils,  yard,  basement,  and  hall  committees. 
Each  council  has  a  judge  elected  by  the  whole  school, 
who  hears  cases  affecting  the  common  weal. 

At  the  Polytechnic  High  School  of  the  same  city, 
there  exists  an  elaborate  system  (elaborate  because  of 
•  C.  H.  Thurber,  in  School  Review,  vol.  v,  pp.  32-5. 


66  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

the  large  size  and  varied  interests  of  the  school)  which 
combines  in  an  unusual  degree  the  socializing  elements 
of  the  High  School  with  a  workable  scheme  of  student 
control.  As  in  the  Thirtieth  Street  School,  the  elected 
representatives  for  boys  and  for  girls  manage  affairs 
in  their  respective  spheres  separately,  a  mode  evi- 
dently more  in  favor  in  the  West  than  in  the  Eastern 
and  Middle  states.  The  central  committees  are  elected 
as  follows:  One  from  the  B9,  one  from  the  A9,  and 
two  each  from  the  Bio,  Aio,  Bii,  An,  B12,  A12;  and 
one  from  the  post-graduate  classes.  The  president  is 
elected  by  the  students  in  general  and  appoints  as 
active  members  of  the  committee  elected  by  the  various 
classes,  from  five  to  eight  more  students  who  have 
served  previously  on  the  committee,  or  who  are  recog- 
nized as  students  who  will  be  an  addition  to  the 
committee. 
A  committee  Each  of  these  central  self-government  committees  is 
divided  into  the  following  sub-committees:  an  execu- 
tive committee,  whose  duty  it  is  to  meet  once  a  week 
and  hear  and  judge  cases  of  students  who  are  referred 
to  it  by  members  of  the  faculty  or  by  students.  They 
have  power  to  act  in  all  cases,  even  to  recommending 
suspension  to  the  principal.  They  keep  a  detention 
room  where  students  who  have  been  sentenced  to  serve 
hours  are  expected  to  remain.  The  president  of  the 
self-government  committee  usually  acts  as  chairman 
of  the  executive  committee.  The  yard  committee 
has  charge  of  conditions  in  the  yard  during  the  noon 
hour  and  all  other  free  periods.  The  desk  committee 
has  a  student  at  the  desk  every  hour  of  the  day  from 
eight  o'clock  in  the  morning  until  four  in  the  afternoon 


system 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  67 

to  pass  upon  all  cases  of  tardiness  either  to  the  building 
or  to  recitation  and  to  issue  sHps  which  admit  to  class- 
rooms —  white  slips  for  excused  tardiness  and  blue 
slips  for  unexcused  —  and  to  keep  a  record  of  all 
excuses.  The  building  conmiittee  of  three  goes  over  the 
building  on  an  average  of  once  a  week  and  reports  to 
the  office  any  writing  or  other  defacement  which  should 
be  removed.  The  school  bounds  committee  inter- 
views students  who  are  leaving  the  grounds,  with  a 
view  to  the  regulation  of  this  privilege. 

The  entire  self-government  committee  meets  upon  Articulation 
call  from  the  office  to  discuss  questions  of  general  school  ]«^*\^e 

^      ,  °  ^  teaching 

interest.  The  members  of  this  committee  discuss  authority 
these  questions  with  the  boys  in  the  different  class- 
rooms and  at  time  of  meeting  —  on  call  from  the  office 
—  give  to  the  office  the  benefit  of  the  discussion  so 
held.  When  decisions  have  been  reached  by  the  office 
and  self-government  committee,  the  members  again 
discuss  the  matter  with  the  different  classrooms  and 
tell  the  students  of  the  decisions  reached. 

The  entire  business  of  the  school  is  under  the  manage- 
ment of  a  board  of  control,  composed  of  two  teachers 
and  eight  students,  one  from  each  class.  A  teacher 
acts  as  treasurer,  and  a  book-keeper  is  elected  by  the 
board,  whose  president,  vice-president,  and  secretary, 
however,  are  elected  by  the  students  at  large.  Lunch- 
room management,  business  management  of  athletics, 
the  business  affairs  of  the  school  publications,  and  of 
all  school  entertainments  are  directly  under  the  control 
of  this  body.  All  expenditures  for  the  school  except 
the  salaries  and  cost  of  repairs,  and  all  moneys  received 
by  the  school,  which  during  the  year  amount  to  between 


68  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

twenty-five    and    thirty    thousand    dollars,    must   be 
approved  by  thig  board. 
The  The  school  clubs  of  all  kinds  are  welded  into  a  body 

controUing  ,  . 

committee  Capable  of  united  action  by  the  Associated  Student 
Body  Organizations,  to  which  the  presidents  belong, 
and  of  which  the  principal  is  chief  adviser.  The  senior 
class  elects  the  editor  and  manager  of  the  school  paper. 
Members  from  each  room,  headed  by  a  captain  elected 
by  the  school,  compose  the  fire  brigade,  which  con- 
ducts the  fire  drills.  The  manager  of  the  lunch  room 
is  elected  monthly  by  the  board  of  control,  while  the 
principal  appoints  a  committee  to  aid  in  the  recovery  of 
lost  articles.  The  athletic  committee  consists  of  student 
representatives  from  the  board  of  control,  scholarship 
committee,  and  boys'  self-government  divisions,  with 
one  appointed  by  the  principal,  and  three  teachers 
elected  by  the  faculty.  An  unusual  feature  is  the 
scholarship  committee,  made  up  of  ten  boys  and  ten 
girls  appointed  by  the  faculty,  grouped  under  two 
chairmen  elected  by  the  students.  Under  the  guid- 
ance of  this  committee,  able  students  help  those  who 
need  help,  and  deficient  students  are  forced  to  give 
extra  time  to  their  work  until  it  is  satisfactory.  Weekly 
reports  must  be  made  to  the  committee  by  failing 
students  until  the  work  is  made  up.  The  committee 
even  directs  that  work  shall  be  dropped  when  students 
are  overscheduled,  and  decides  when  failing  students 
shall  be  dismissed  from  school.  This  method  of  mutual 
helpfulness  and  supervision  has  proved  successful  in 
keeping  the  scholarship  standard  on  a  high  plane, 
through  the  activity  of  those  whose  approval  means 
most  to  the  boys  and  girls  —  their  own  schoolmates. 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  69 

The  foregoing  outline  of  pupil-government  schemes  What  is 
shows  the  ways  in  which  children  may  be  orgamzed 
to  promote  their  own  administrative  ability.  What 
the  systems  teach,  however,  is  never  so  much  self-gov- 
ernment as  the  government  of  others.  Such  systems 
develop  an  extraordinary  degree  of  skill  in  manage- 
ment, a  maturity  and  quickness  of  judgment  in  children 
which  would  scarcely  have  been  thought  possible  a 
generation  ago.  By  finding  work  for  all,  moreover, 
they  doubtless  prevent  a  great  deal  of  the  mischief 
that  springs  from  idleness;  and  by  imposing  responsi- 
biUty  upon  the  more  active  pupils  they  hold  them  to  a 
loyalty  to  the  system  which  turns  their  energies  into 
wholesome  channels.  There  are,  however,  numberless 
practical  objections  to  such  schemes,  most  of  them 
phases  of  the  almost  inevitably  bad  results  of  imposing 
an  essentially  artificial  condition  upon  any  group  of 
people.  The  test  of  self-government  Hes  not  in  the 
ability  to  carry  out  an  elaborate  scheme,  made  pictur- 
esque by  the  trappings  of  maturity,  and  appeahngly 
baited  with  honors  and  distinctions;  but  in  doing  daily 
the  real,  fundamental  work  of  school  hfe,  each  pupil 
frankly  in  his  place  as  a  learner,  an  apprentice  still, 
but  gaining  constantly  the  power  to  do  the  thing  that 
his  teachers  require,  with  less  and  less  of  their  imme- 
diate help. 

The  fact  that  these  plans  for  utilizing  the  social  con- 
sciousness of  students  do  not  involve  real  self-govern- 
ment to  any  great  extent,  however,  is  not  in  itself  a 
conclusive  argument  against  them;  for  self-govern- 
ment is  an  attainment  that  may  be  gained  by  many 
paths,  and  is  not  to  be  secured  by  wholesale  dr  by  any 


view 


70  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

magic  formula  of  management.  The  crucial  test  for 
pupil-government  schemes  is  whether  they  afford  a 
more  sure  or  economical  means  for  reaching  self-govern- 
ment than  do  the  older  plans  of  government  by  regu- 
larly instituted  authorities. 
From  the  On  the  part  of  the  teaching  force  there  is  not  a  clear 

point  of  case  in  favor  of  pupil  government.  It  must  not  be 
forgotten  that,  for  the  successful  examples  given,  there 
are  many  failures,  which  do  not  appear  in  the  educa- 
tional journals  but  which  have  their  effect  upon  our 
educational  history.  It  would  be  foolish  to  condemn 
it  in  those  cases  in  which  teachers  of  strong  personality 
have  felt  that  this  form  of  government  supplied  just 
the  incentive  needed  in  their  particular  schools.  As 
a  temporary  expedient,  it  has  perhaps  justified  itself; 
at  least  there  are  not  wanting  schools  in  which  it  has 
been  tried  and  abandoned,  but  in  which  a  higher 
plane  of  honor  and  responsibility  has  been  maintained 
after  the  experiment  than  before  it.  It  is  noticeable 
that  it  has  gained  most  spectacular  success  where  con- 
ditions are  not  normal,  as  in  large  city  school  systems 
subject  to  the  influence  of  unhealthy  surroundings. 
The  adoption  of  the  elaborate  artificiality  of  school 
states,  cities,  committee  systems,  and  the  Uke,  may 
sometimes  be  the  question-begging  compromise  of 
teachers  who  are  not  quite  able  to  arouse  the  requisite 
interest  and  ideals  in  connection  with  the  school's 
regular  work.  Hampered  by  the  artificiality  of  tra- 
ditional schoolroom  customs,  they  add  another  artifici- 
ality seven  times  worse,  in  the  hope  of  enlisting  the 
support  of  pupils  by  making  them  accomplices  in  the 
situation.     Rather  than  attack  the  fundamental  evil, 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  71 

which  is  lack  of  respect  for  law  (which,  it  is  true,  is  so 
prevalent  that  children  learn  it  at  home  and  on  the 
street  faster  than  it  can  be  corrected  at  school)  they 
bribe  their  pupils  to  support  this  law  by  identifying 
them  with  it. 

To  a  very  old-fashioned  person,  the  result  seems  to  As  it 
be  an  attitude  of  easy  condescension  toward  all  stand-  *^®<=*s^® 

•'  conception 

ards  of  right  and  wrong.  He  who  makes  the  law  is  of  law 
greater  than  the  law,  obviously;  he  who  obeys  is  less 
than  the  law.  Is  it  wise  for  young  children  to  learn, 
by  daily  practice,  that  law  is  a  thing  created  by  them- 
selves, subject  to  change  if  a  majority  of  them  wish  it? 
In  times  perhaps  gone  by,  children  had  an  idea  that 
rules  of  right  and  wrong  came  from  a  higher  power 
—  from  parents,  from  teachers,  from  elected  represen- 
tatives in  congresses  assembled,  ultimately  from  God 
HimseK.  If  the  old  idea  of  the  superiority  of  the  law 
over  the  wishes  of  individuals,  the  old  reverence  for 
law  as  a  controlling  power,  could  be  preserved  or  re- 
vived, might  it  not  be  better  than  the  newer  idea  that 
law  is  but  the  collective  wish  of  one's  peers? 

To  recapitulate:  The  duty  of  each  pupil  so  to  order  a  summary 
his  actions  as  to  conserve  the  good  of  all  his  associates, 
may  be  so  impressed  upon  children  as  to  affect  their 
behavior  for  good.  It  is  the  highest  of  all  motives  for 
good  behavior,  depending  upon  the  will  for  realization, 
and  approximating  the  motives  of  social  behavior  in 
grown  people  in  the  world  at  large.  Four  systems  of 
pupil-government  based  upon  this  mode  are  used: 

I.  That  of  pupil  cooperation  with  teachers,  in  which 
self-government  is  allowed  to  individual  pupils  as  they 
show  themselves  worthy  or  as  conditions  allow,  but  in 


The 
fundamental 


72  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

accordance  with  regulations  made  by  the  teaching 
authority. 

2.  That  in  which  the  teachers  reserve  all  control, 
but  permit  the  pupils  to  help  in  the  administration 
of  the  school  under  the  forms  of  some  unit  of  civil 
government. 

3.  That  in  which  real  self-government  is  granted  to 
such  pupils  as  have  earned  it  by  good  behavior. 

4.  That  in  which  all  the  pupils  of  the  school  have  a 
real  voice  in  the  school  management  and  control. 

In  a  number  of  instances  these  schemes  of  pupil  gov- 
ernment have  proved  workable  and  highly  successful. 
But  true  self-government  may  be  developed  without 
them,  and  it  is  doubtful  if   the  elaborate  dramatiza- 
object  tion  of  the  forms  of  civil  government  is  a  necessary 

means  of  teaching  the  duties  of  citizenship.  The 
ultimate  decision  of  all  school  matters  should  lie  with 
adults,  and  with  adults  who  have  studied  school  ques- 
tions carefully  and  in  their  many  bearings  —  in  a  word, 
with  teachers. 

Summary  of  the  Chapters  on  Modes  of 
Control 

The  earliest  mode  of  school  government  was  that 
based  on  force,  which  demanded  that  the  teacher's 
authority  be  regarded,  without  appeal  to  any  motive 
of  pleasure  or  gain  on  the  part  of  the  pupil. 

To  this  was  added  a  milder  mode  in  which  the  teacher 
used  his  personal  influence  in  persuading  the  pupil  to 
follow  directions. 

Pupils  may  also  refrain  from  evil  and  do  good  through 
interest  in  their  own  advantage  and  advancement. 


MODES  OF  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT*  73 

A  fourth  mode  of  great  practical  use  is  that  of  filling 
the  life  of  the  pupil  so  full  of  wholesome  interests  that 
those  antagonistic  to  good  school  disciphne  are  crowded 
out. 

The  highest  motive  for  which  pupils  can  be  trained 
to  "be  good"  is  that  of  contributing  to  the  well-being 
and  happiness  of  the  whole  school.  Teachers  can  so 
guide  their  pupils  that  the  lower  of  these  motives  will 
give  way  to  successively  higher  ones,  and  in  this  way 
establish  the  better  modes  as  fully  as  possible. 


CHAPTER  V 

RECENT  DEVELOPMENTS  IN  AMERICAN  LIFE  AS  THEY 
AFFECT  THE   QUESTION  OF  SCHOOL  DISCIPLINE 

One's  best  excuse  for  attempting  to  enumerate  the 
characteristics  of  our  national  life  which  have  helped 
to  change  school  discipline,  lies  in  the  mutually  re- 
troactive nature  of  those  influences  and  of  school 
discipline.  By  seeing  clearly  what  forces  have  operated 
to  change  so  thoroughly  the  nature  of  school  control 
and  management,  we  may  to  some  extent  judge  how 
far  that  change  is  a  wholesome  and  a  hopeful  one,  and 
also  perhaps  predict  the  effect  of  our  altered  methods 
upon  the  Ufe  of  our  people. 
Feminiza-  The  most  direct  and  obvious  influence,  as  has  often 

been  pointed  out,  is  doubtless  the  feminization  of  the 
teaching  force.  The  condition  is  a  new  one.  Never 
before  in  the  world's  history  were  schools  given  over 
as  they  are  now  in  America  to  women  teachers.  Pos- 
sessed of  a  natural  sympathy  with  children  not  so 
generally  characteristic  of  men,  used  to  securing  their 
ends  by  diplomacy  rather  than  by  force,  responding 
more  or  less  adequately  to  a  constantly-preached  ideal 
in  which  soft  voice,  gentle  manner,  and  angeHc  patience 
are  important  ingredients,  women  inevitably  fell  short 
of  the  Squeers  standard  of  discipline,  and  early  de- 
veloped a  teaching  manner  of  their  own.     Frontier 


tion 


HOW  AMERICAN  LIFE  AFFECTS  DISCIPLINE      75 

schools,  demanding  a  teacher  capable  of  administering 
a  drubbing  to  the  overgrown  backwoods  boys  who 
attended  them,  rejected  the  woman  teacher.  But 
westward  expansion  was  on  the  side  of  the  school- 
ma'am,  for  when  there  were  not  masters  enough  to 
teach  the  schools  in  the  old  way,  the  public  was  forced 
to  accept  education  at  the  hands  of  those  who  could 
teach  only  in  the  new.  The  greater  needs  and  greater 
rewards  in  other  fields  for  many  years  kept  first-class 
men  largely  out  of  the  profession  of  teaching;  and  the 
alert,  energetic,  responsibility-seeking  American  woman 
stepped  into  the  breach.  She  has  done  her  work  well, 
and  in  bringing  both  her  strength  and  her  weaknesses 
into  the  schoolroom  has  exerted  a  determining  influence 
upon  educational  methods.  Probably  her  innate  and 
ineradicable  preference  for  the  methods  of  persuasion 
has  done  more  than  any  other  one  thing  to  discoun- 
tenance harshness  in  American  school  management. 

Another  great  influence  is  a  diffused  and  indirect  interest  and 
one  which  may  be  summed  up  in  what  is  popularly  ^^"p^'^^ 
known  as  the  Doctrine  of  Interest.  The  enrichment 
of  content  which  has  come  to  all  the  subjects  in  our 
school  courses,  the  conscious  effort  to  make  the  school 
work  appeal  to  the  present  interests  of  the  pupils  — 
the  idea,  in  short,  of  making  school  a  part  of  life,  and  a 
pleasant  part  too  —  this  movement  has  had  a  marked 
effect  in  changing  the  attitude,  and  consequently  the 
behavior,  of  children  in  school.  It  has  by  no  means 
solved  the  problem  of  discipline,  as  some  rose-be- 
spectacled theorizers  would  have  us  believe:  but  it 
has  immensely  simplified  it.  It  has  changed  a  prison 
to  a  House  of  Life.    It  has  revealed  to  children,  where 


76  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

formerly  they  trod  a  hard  path  blindly,  beauties  by 
the  wayside,  and  a  far,  fair  country  to  be  won  at  the 
journey's  end.  It  has  transformed  slave-drivers  into 
friends,  and  masters  into  elder  brothers.  It  has 
unlocked  with  magic  keys  doors  that  were  once  fast 
closed;  and  broken  down  the  barrier  that  once  sepa- 
rated the  interests  of  children  from  the  interests  of 
the  great  world.  For  now,  even  in  the  beginning  of 
his  days  at  school,  the  child  realizes  that  his  life  has 
elements  in  common  with  the  lives  of  countless  people 
whom  he  never  sees,  and  that  new  wonders,  new  ties, 
and  new  responsibilites  are  to  be  shown  him  as  he  goes 
on.  School  is  a  Friendly  World.  He  has  no  cause  to 
know  that  injured  resentment  which  lay  at  the  root  of 
a  large  part  of  the  insubordination  of  our  fathers'  days. 
Who  wants  to  fight  his  best  friend?  Who  wants  to 
spoil  tomorrow's  fun? 

Toleration  is  a  much-lauded  trait  which  has  its  good 
and  its  bad  side.  It  has  developed  wholesomely  into 
healthy  ideas  of  the  equality  of  the  rights  of  men,  into 
kindly  sympathy  with  the  unfortunate,  into  a  surer 
sense  of  justice  toward  all,  including  those  who  oppose 
our  interests  or  our  views.  It  shows  itself  pathologi- 
cally in  a  weak-kneed  reluctance  to  interfere  with  those 
whose  ways  transgress  the  rights  of  others  or  threaten 
destruction  to  themselves.  It  permits  a  militant  indi- 
vidualism that  out-Rousseaus  Rousseau.  It  hesitates 
ignominiously  before  the  remedy  of  controlling  the 
actions  of  those  plainly  unfit  or  unwilling  to  contribute 
to  the  social  good.  It  endures  inconvenience,  lack  of 
progress,  and  actual  vice,  because  of  a  mistaken  code 
which  pays  respect  to  things  which  are  not  respectable. 


HOW  AMERICAN  LIFE  AFFECTS  DISCIPLINE      77 

Two  widespread  and  wholesome  outgrowths  of  the  The  influ- 
spirit  of  toleration  are  democracy  and  altruism.  (De-  American 
mocracy,  too  many-shaded  a  word  ever  safely  to  be  democracy 

•1-1  ^     r      •    •  •  1    •  1  r  i-  On  School 

said  without  dehmtion,  is  used  m  the  sense  of  equality  discipline 
of  opportunity  for  all.)  The  feeUng  for  equal  oppor- 
tunity and  equal  rights,  which  grew  almost  into  the 
semblance  of  a  national  religion  with  the  westward 
expansion  following  the  War  of  18 12,  and  which  has 
never  wholly  lost  that  exalted  aspect,  has  given  its 
share  to  the  change  in  methods  of  school  discipline. 
It  was  as  incompatible  with  that  fine  reverence  paid 
the  teacher  in  German  schools,  as  was  the  American 
master's  limited  training  and  uncertain  social  position. 
It  made  it  impracticable  for  the  schoolmaster  to  be  a 
monarch;  for  no  man,  however  kingly,  could  exercise 
kingly  prerogatives  over  a  roomful  of  pupils  toward 
whom  one  of  his  chief  duties  was  the  exposition  of  the 
Spirit  of  '76.  Denied  by  the  logic  of  his  position  more 
arbitrary  methods,  the  American  schoolmaster,  and 
more  particularly  the  American  schoolmistress,  has  ' 
developed  in  a  wonderful  way  a  kind  of  relation  between 
teacher  and  pupils  which  is  a  new  thing  in  the  world. 

It  is,  moreover,  a  very  fine  thing,  embodying  more  of  The 
the  ideal  spirit  of  education  than  ever  appeared  in  the  s^^'^int 
schools  of  the  past.  It  premises  a  friendly  leadership, 
appealing  to  the  interests  and  ambitions  of  the  pupils, 
developing  in  its  best  phases  a  sense  of  honor,  of  no- 
blesse oblige,  almost  unique,  by  conceding  their  essential 
equaUty.  This  spirit  grew  up  for  the  most  part  in  the 
West,  an  instinctive  and  wise  response  to  the  situation 
in  a  new  and  over-lusty  country,  and  had  become  a 
tradition  before  the  machinery  of  organized  society 


78  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

gave  to  the  schools  that  solid  backing  which  they  now 
generally  enjoy.  The  combination  of  the  two,  the  re- 
enforcement  of  friendly  leadership  by  unquestioned  au- 
thority, gives  an  ideal  condition  for  effective  school 
discipline. 

The  altruistic  and  socializing  tendencies  of  today 
have  worked  in  numberless  ways  to  modify  school  dis- 
cipline. The  doctrines  of  Froebel,  long  accepted  in 
theory,  must  wait  before  their  full  realization  for  a 
more  general  acceptance  of  social  rather  than  individu- 
alistic motives.  But  the  study  of  social  ideals,  exten- 
sively carried  on  by  teachers,  will  find  expression  in  the 
daily  conduct  of  their  classrooms.  That  children  are 
social  beings,  to  be  developed  under  social  influences, 
emplojdng  social  relationships,  and  destined  for  social 
service,  must  inevitably  introduce  into  schoolroom 
practice  an  element  of  cooperation  once  undreamed  of. 
Thecui-  In  these  days  when  vocational  education  looms  so 

and  *  large,  it  is  hard  to  realize  that  the  cultural  ideal  is  really 
discipline  growing  in  American  schools,  and  influencing  methods 
of  control.  It  is  true  that  the  school  systems  brought 
from  Europe  by  our  ancestors  were  originally  intended 
only  for  the  children  of  the  well-to-do.  But  it  was  the 
dehberate  purpose  of  our  forebears  to  adapt  them  to 
the  needs  of  all  the  children  of  all  the  people,  and  this 
end  has  been  largely  accomplished.  To  use  the  schools 
for  the  practical  training  of  children  for  their  future 
vocations  is  no  new  ideal  in  America;  it  is  only  the 
efficiency  that  approximates  reaUzation  which  is  new. 
From  the  first,  the  Western  frontiersman  sent  his  boy 
to  school  that  he  might  get  on  in  the  world  when  he 
grew  up;   and  his  girl,  that  she  might  teach  at  first, 


HOW  AMERICAN  LIFE  AFFECTS  DISCIPLINE      79 

thus  proving  her  ability  to  take  care  of  herself,  and 
later  that  she  might  "marry  well."  The  purposes  of 
our  schools  were  frankly  utilitarian  in  the  West,  where 
most  things,  in  fact,  had  to  show  a  utilitarian  reason 
for  being  in  order  to  survive.  The  rapidly  advancing 
frontier  had  small  patience  with  the  purely  ornamental, 
and  small  understanding  of  the  finer  aesthetic  and 
spiritual  aspects  of  hfe.  Appreciation  of  these  things 
came,  as  they  always  have  on  the  earth,  with  the 
assurance  of  provision  for  material  needs. 

As  an  older  type  of  civilization  has  replaced  the  when  Latin 
conditions  of  the  frontier  in  America,  cultural  ideals,  ^^  Greek 

were 

without  replacing  utiHtarian  ones,  have  come  to  take  vocational 
their  place  with  them.  The  decay  of  interest  in  the  *"  ^^'^^ 
classics  does  not  disprove  this.  A  large  proportion  of 
the  classical  students  of  an  earlier  day  were  ministerial 
aspirants;  Latin  and  Greek  were  part  of  their  pro- 
fessional equipment.  With  students  of  law  and  medi- 
cine, they  studied  the  classics  for  the  same  purpose 
that  today  sends  an  agricultural  student  to  the  chemical 
laboratory.  In  a  large  majority  of  cases  the  desire 
for  culture  was  a  secondary  motive  where  it  existed 
at  all.  But  the  agricultural  student  now  takes  three 
or  four  years'  work  in  EngHsh,  and  that  avowedly 
mainly  for  its  cultural  value.  Slowly,  steadily,  stand- 
ards of  culture  are  rising  in  the  country  as  a  whole,  as 
any  observant  man  past  his  fiftieth  year  will  bear 
witness. 

This  growth  of  the  cultural  ideal,  which  does  not  Culture 
supplant  but  does  supplement  the  lately-stimulated  ^gcipUne 
and   increasingly-realized   vocational   ideal   of   school 
usefulness,   is   exercising   its   own   good   influence   on 


8o  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

methods  of  school  discipline.  We  are  importing,  with 
other  once  despised  British  institutions,  the  ideal  of 
those  English  public  schools  which  aim  to  "make 
gentlemen"  of  the  boys  who  attend  them.  Manners 
and  morals  are  taught  more  and  more.  The  bully, 
be  he  teacher  or  pupil,  is  a  passing  factor.  He  has 
had  his  day,  A  better  ideal  of  manliness  has  rid  the 
schoolroom  of  his  presence;  a  higher  state  of  culture 
has  reacted  to  discountenance  him.  And  his  methods 
have  gone  with  him  —  a  good  riddance. 
Signs  of  AH  the  change  in  disciplinary  methods  is  registered, 

the  times  fQj.  |.]^g  justification  of  optimists,  in  ways  that  he  who 
runs  may  read.  It  is  patent  in  the  sometimes  foolish 
legislation  against  corporal  punishment,  a  thorough- 
going reaction  often  productive  of  more  harm  than 
good.  It  shows  in  the  attitude  of  the  public,  in  that 
of  educational  bodies,  and  in  the  press.  It  has  helped 
to  estabUsh  special  schools  for  incorrigibles  and  ab- 
normal children,  where  severe  treatment  may  be 
administered  when  advisable  without  demoralizing 
effects  upon  normal  children.  Above  all,  it  is  supply- 
ing courses  which  have  an  intrinsic  appeal,  to  children 
who  respond  naturally  and  eagerly  to  this  new  "square 
deal." 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  PRESCRIPTION   OF  DISCIPLINARY  ACTIVITIES 

One  who  is  not  a  psychological  expert  approaches  The  formal 
the  question  of  the  reality  of  discipline  with  a  diffidence  conteoversy 
appropriate  to  those  traditional  spots  whereupon  angels 
fear  to  tread,  and  where  trespass  may  call  down  upon 
one  the  proverbial  alternative  appellation.  Upon  the 
battlefield  of  Formal  Discipline  many  a  wise  man  has 
met  defeat;  and  many  a  teacher,  confident  of  his 
ground  because  of  his  own  unscientific  observations 
and  the  traditions  of  his  cult,  has  been  appalled  and 
discomfited  by  the  learned.  For  the  warning  of  the 
wise  be  it  said,  therefore,  that  the  conclusions  in  this 
chapter  are  based,  truly  or  falsely  as  the  case  may 
hereafter  be  shown  to  be,  upon  the  author's  under- 
standing of  the  probable  facts  as  to  the  reality  of 
formal  discipline.  These  facts  can  not  be  said  to  be 
definitely  established,  although  supported  by  some 
fairly  conclusive  experiments  and  an  immense  popular 
conviction,  growing  from  common  experience  and 
tradition.  There  is,  of  course,  much  scientific  data 
to  support  an  opposing  opinion,  and  the  whole  question 
is  in  a  condition  of  flux  which  precludes  finality  in  the 
stating  of  conclusions. 

A  statement  of  the  conclusions  upon  which  a  working  ^  ***^^. 

generaliza- 

theory  of  prescriptive  discipline  may  be  based  is  as  tion 


82  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

follows:  From  a  multitude  of  duplicated  or  similar 
experiences,  a  rationalized  generalization  or  ideal  is 
finally  crystallized  in  the  mind,  from  which  new  applica- 
tions are  readily  made  to  suit  new  situations  in  which 
there  are  easily  recognized  similar  elements.  The  transfer 
of  habit  is  not  a  direct  one,  but  is  practically  sure  if 
the  disciplinary  series  has  been  thoroughly  followed 
and  its  generalization  secured  by  thoughtful  considera- 
tion. A  concrete  illustration  of  this  is  the  process  of 
training  children  to  a  considerate  silence  in  rooms  in 
which  other  people  are  giving  close  attention  to  study 
or  instruction.  A  child  is  trained  to  refrain  from 
talking  in  school,  and  also  in  church;  but  unless  he 
has,  beside  this  concrete  training,  been  led  to  abstract 
the  general  principle  that  wherever  people  are  doing 
something  that  requires  quiet  for  concentrated  thought 
or  reverent  attention,  others  should  yield  them  that 
quiet,  he  may  disturb  readers  in  a  library  until  forced 
by  others  to  stop  talking.  The  boy  who  is  corrected 
for  throwing  snowballs  and  paper-wads,  and  stops, 
but  thinks  himself  blameless  if  he  throws  green  apples 
instead,  has  not  been  led  to  generalize  from  his  specific 
experiences.^ 
Definition  A  disciplinary  activity  is  any  activity  in  which  one 

engages,  not  primarily  for  its  own  sake  or  the  sake  of 
its  immediate  outcome,  but  for  a  desirable  subjective 
effect  —  that  is,  for  the  training  value  it  may  have 
upon  one's  self.     Since  people  are  most  easily  influenced 

^  Ruediger,  "  Indirect  Improvement  of  Mental  Functions  through 
Ideals,"  Educational  Review,  xxxvi:  364-71  (1908).  A  list  of  refer- 
ences bearing  upon  this  controversy,  so  important  in  fixing  upon 
justifiable  methods  in  school  management,  is  given  in  the  classified 
bibliography  in  an  appendix. 


DISCIPLINARY  ACTIVITIES  83 

during  the  formative  period  of  childhood,  disciplinary 
activities  are  peculiarly  valuable  before  maturity 
brings  fixed  habits  and  fimdamental  training  has  been 
acquired.  Grown  people,  as  well  as  thoughtful  and 
earnest  children,  often  make  disciplinary  requirements 
of  themselves,  that  they  may  attain  some  end  which 
they  see  to  be  desirable.  But  all  young  children,  and 
a  majority  of  older  children  and  grown  people,  have 
neither  the  conception  of  their  need  nor  the  power  of 
volition  to  choose  for  themselves  the  disciplinary  activ- 
ities which  will  contribute  to  their  training.  For  all 
such,  the  forces  of  social  authority  prescribe  disciplinary 
activities,  justifying  their  course  by  the  end  of  social 
advance,  and  exacting  obedience  to  their  requirement 
by  whatever  force  it  may  be  necessary  to  use. 

The  prescription  of  disciplinary  activities  begins  in  niustrationa 
babyhood  and  extends  throughout  the  formative 
period.  It  is  a  universal  law  of  social  Ufe,  in  fact,  and 
to  deny  it  is  essential  anarchy.  In  a  majority  of  cases 
the  demands  of  authority  find  ready  response  from 
children,  for  they  are  eager  to  have  new  experiences, 
full  of  curiosity,  and  anxious  to  please  where  kindness 
is  shown.  But  where  response  is  reluctant,  there  the 
prescription  is  still  imperative.  A  mother,  trying  to 
teach  her  child  to  eat  his  bread-and-milk  with  a  spoon, 
does  not  give  up  her  requirement  because  the  baby 
prefers  to  use  his  fingers;  nor  does  the  teacher  yield 
to  a  boy's  desire  to  go  on  playing  ball  when  the  school- 
bell  rings  for  lessons;  nor  does  the  policeman  permit 
a  tipsy  cowboy  to  shoot  his  revolver  into  the  air  on  the 
main  street  of  a  town,  even  when  that  street  is  empty 
of  traflSc.    No  immediate  harm  is  done  by  any  one  of 


84 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


Mental 
discipline 


Discipline 
in  habit 
formation 


these  acts,  but  the  children  will  never  learn  table- 
manners  or  lessons  if  permitted  to  follow  their  own 
wills,  and  the  cowboy  must  be  taught  to  respect  the 
desire  of  men  to  feel  safe  from  stray  bullets. 

Discipline  is  a  word  of  many  applications.  Mental 
discipline,  that  doctrine  beloved  of  the  older  educators, 
that  blanket  justification  for  unlimited  courses  in 
mathematics  and  languages  which  could  find  excuse  in 
neither  pleasure  nor  use,  is  still  far  from  being  an  ex- 
ploded theory.  Frowned  upon  by  psychologists  and 
grudgingly  tolerated  by  practical  experimenters,  it 
still  flaunts  a  triumphant  tenure  of  popular  belief  in 
the  faces  of  its  enemies.  A  sort  of  universal  intuition 
stands  by  it,  and  advises  a  suspension  of  sentence 
until  a  more  advanced  psychology  may  render  de- 
cision. Meantime,  its  direct  bearing  on  questions  of 
school  disciphne  is  yearly  becoming  less,  as  curricula 
approximate  more  nearly  a  fulfilment  of  immediate 
and  undisputed  demands. 

The  great  function  of  prescription  is  to  make  easy 
the  forming  of  good  habits.  Habit-forming  is  by  far 
the  greatest  part  of  elementary  education.  Reading, 
writing,  numbers,  singing,  memorization  of  all  sorts, 
manners,  the  skilful  and  graceful  management  of  the 
body,  cleanhness,  orderhness  —  all  are  habits.  They 
are  acquired  largely  through  prescription.  Curiosity 
and  the  desire  to  excel,  love  of  motion  and  instinctive 
imitation,  all  play  their  good  parts  in  this  pleasant 
drama  of  development,  but  prescription  must  be 
the  prompter,  and  see  that  the  play  goes  on  when 
the  actors  forget  their  lines  or  refuse  to  carry  on  the 
"business." 


DISCIPLINARY  ACTIVITIES  85 

Unselfishness  may  become  so  thorough  a  habit  that  Prescription 


it  ceases  to  be  a  virtue.  If  this  condition  of  things 
were  general  we  should  be  ushering  in  a  millennium, 
but  it  is  really  rather  rare  as  yet  among  individuals. 
Both  as  a  virtue  and  as  a  habit,  however,  it  must  be 
suggested  to  the  self-centered  child,  and  when  volun- 
tary response  fails,  it  should  be  prescribed.  Consid- 
eration for  others  is  not  a  superfluous  virtue,  but  a 
duty.  "Only  those  acts  of  kindness  which  come  from 
a  willing  heart  are  truly  virtuous"  is  a  false  sentiment. 
The  most  virtuous  acts  include  those  wrung  from  an 
imwilling  heart  by  stern  self-discipline  or  the  authority 
of  others.  Consideration  for  others  should  find  ac- 
knowledgment and  appreciation,  but  it  should  also  be 
expected  and  required.  Lovely  indeed  is  the  child 
who  loves  to  divide  his  candy  among  his  brothers  and 
sisters,  but  if  he  does  not  he  may  be  required  to,  and 
so  helped  to  form  a  specific  habit  of  unselfishness.  It 
is  not  claimed,  of  course,  that  these  specific  habits  form 
general  habits  directly;  but  that  their  practice  makes 
it  easy  to  form  other  habits  which  grow  out  of  general 
ideas  easily  formulated  by  the  child  to  whom  con- 
sideration has  become  habitual. 

Race  Experience  and  its  Crystallization 
IN  Prescription 
Every  father  decides  his  boy's  problems  largely  in 
the  light  of  his  own  experience.  He  wishes  his  son  to 
do  what  he  did,  if  he  imagines  that  those  things  helped 
him;  or  plans  to  enable  his  boy  to  avoid  them,  if  he 
thinks  they  stood  in  his  own  way.  So  a  group  of 
men  of  similar  experiences  will  prescribe  for  their  sons 


of  social 


86  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

those  things  which  their  joint  experience  dictates  as 
wise.  A  man  of  influence  and  distinction,  to  whose 
opinions  ordinary  men  defer,  will  probably  think  that 
the  processes  and  experiences  which  made  him  a  man 
of  eminence,  are  most  helpful  to  others.  So  Aristotle, 
founding  a  new  school  whose  success  was  largely  due 
to  his  use  of  the  syllogism,  prescribed  syllogisms  for 
others,  and  such  was  his  authority  that  the  youth  of 
centuries  were  trained  to  reason  in  syllogisms  when 
they  should  have  learned  to  plow,  to  see,  and  to  think.^ 
In  general,  this  is  the  history  of  curricula.  The  men 
of  any  given  era  rise  to  a  certain  accomplishment 
through  hard  experience  and  effort,  and  some  one  of 
them  or  a  group  of  them  crystallizes  the  typical  ex- 
perience by  which  the  highest  attainment  of  their 
time  and  class  has  been  reached,  in  a  prescribed  course 
of  study  for  youth.  This  is  adopted,  usually  after 
some  delay.  Once  adopted,  it  becomes  entrenched 
in  tradition,  and  only  when  its  inadequacy  becomes 
apparent  to  even  the  most  careless,  is  it  changed 
by  a  new  leader  or  group  of  leaders  to  a  new  set  of 
requirements. 
The  present  Such  Conflicts  between  the  established  order  and 
prescription  the  insurgents  in  education  have  occurred  more  than 
once.  The  Renaissance  in  its  stimulus  to  the  studies 
of  the  humanities  is  the  most  notable  example.  There 
is  such  a  conflict  today,  and  the  effect  upon  education 
and  civilization  promises  to  be  no  less  far-reaching. 
The  revolt  Two  distinct  elements  may  be  discerned  in  the 
present  conflict  with  the  conventional  school  program. 
There  is,  first,  the  conflict  of  individual  experience, 

*  Aristotle,  The  Organon. 


of  the  pupil 


DISCIPLINARY  ACTIVITIES  87 

and  its  resultant  conception  of  need,  with  the  pre- 
scribed course.  This  is  rife  among  the  people,  both 
parents  and  children.  The  children  can  not  see  how 
all  the  things  they  are  called  upon  to  study  are  going 
to  be  of  use  to  them  in  the  future,  or  pleasant  at  the 
time.  They  may  seek  the  interest  that  lessons  lack  in 
illegitimate  fun,  or  find  a  sweet  revenge  in  unlawful 
deeds.  Finally,  when  the  call  of  more  alluring  in- 
terests and  the  compulsory  age  limit  coincide,  they 
leave  school  altogether.  Parents,  who  find  that  the 
schools  give  their  children  no  direct  training  for  the 
work  they  are  to  do  in  the  world,  add  their  objections. 

Moreover,  the  most  advanced  educators  agree  with  The  revolt 
the  common  people  that  the  old  prescriptive  courses  "ciwoimeii 
are  inadequate.  Such  men  acknowledge  that  the  claim 
of  the  child  and  his  parent  is  well  founded;  but  they 
go  farther,  and  looking  into  the  future,  say  that  radical 
changes  must  be  made  if  the  school  is  to  play  its  part 
faithfully  in  the  world.  Such  men  are  usually  those 
for  whom  the  schools,  in  the  days  when  they  trained 
the  intellect  almost  exclusively,  were  well  suited  as  a 
means  of  development.  They  are  not  those  whose 
personal  ends  conflict  with  the  conventional  program. 
But,  with  a  previsionary  and  constructive  conception 
of  a  new  social  order,  they  have  a  new  conception  of 
the  need  which  the  schools  exist  to  satisfy.  They 
join  the  number  of  those  who  demand  that  schools 
prescribe  and  furnish  new  studies  to  suit  the  specific 
needs  of  their  pupils. 

The  prescription  of  courses,  then,  while  justifiable  The 
and  necessary,  is  at  present  mistaken  in  many  of  its  p^  *" 
applications,  and  results  in  waste  and  loss.    Teachers 


88  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

face  the  task  of  readjusting  requirements.  Their 
work  is  to  select  from  the  whole  mass  of  experience 
and  knowledge  that  has  accumulated  in  the  world, 
not  those  experiences  and  that  knowledge  that  served 
a  past  generation  best,  but  what  will  be  most  valuable 
to  the  children  now  growing  up.  Teachers  are  the 
race-givers,  the  almoners  of  humanity  in  its  largess  to 
its  children. 
The  But  prescription  by  others  is  at  best  but  a  temporary 

presCTiption  expedient,  one  great  aim  of  education  being  to  develop 
the  child  to  the  point  where  he  will  select  his  own. 
As  children  grow  older,  also,  the  proportion  of  ac- 
tivities of  a  strictly  disciplinary  nature  grows  less  and 
less,  while  those  with  a  direct,  obvious,  immediately 
desirable  outcome  increase.  When  shall  the  child 
begin  to  choose  his  own?  When  shall  the  teacher 
cease  to  select  and  prescribe,  and  confine  himself  to 
teaching  what  the  child  elects  to  learn?  Clearly,  the 
arts  and  knowledge  which  ordinary  intercourse  de- 
mands, must  be  acquired,  whether  the  pupil  wants 
them  at  the  time  or  not.  Reading,  writing,  the  use  of 
the  language,  useful  computations,  and  a  reasonable 
knowledge  of  geography,  civics,  and  history  are  neces- 
sary foundations  that  good  citizenship,  irrespective  of 
vocation  or  position,  requires. 

Beyond  that,  the  prescription  of  specific  pursuits 
may  be  limited  to  a  choice  of  means  to  an  end  chosen 
by  the  pupil,  if  the  pupil  is  ready  or  able  to  make  his 
choice.  But  if  neither  necessity  nor  interest  dictate 
an  immediate  specialization,  common  sense  suggests 
that  a  general  course,  which  has  a  maximum  of  points 
of  contact  with  various  special  fields,  offers  the  best 


DISCIPLINARY  ACTIVITIES  89 

work  for  the  student  until  he  is  ready  to  choose  his 
own  work.  Those  subjects  which  aim  to  supply 
universal  needs  are  to  be  prescribed,  the  prescription 
ending  at  the  point  of  departure  for  the  elected  field  of 
special  endeavor,  which  may  or  may  not  be  immedi- 
ately upon  acquiring  the  educational  fundamentals. 

The  bearing  of  all  this  upon  the  question  of  discipline  AppKcation 
in  its  narrower  sense  of  the  good  order  of  the  school  *°  discipline 
is  twofold.  It  predicates  the  right  of  the  teacher  or 
other  school  authorities  to  prescribe  whatever  in  the 
way  of  behavior  may  be  necessary  for  the  good  of  the 
pupils  and  of  the  school;  and  it  indicates  what  some 
of  those  requirements  may  be.  All  the  three  varieties 
of  prescriptive  activities,  giving  mental,  habitual,  and 
altruistic  discipHne,  suggest  what  is  to  be  required  of 
pupils.  The  list  given  below  is  not  at  all  exhaustive, 
nor  are  all  its  items  applicable  to  all  schools  or  at  all 
times.  It  would  be  very  foolish  to  require,  for  instance, 
silence  and  a  comparatively  fixed  bodily  position  in  a 
class  at  bench- work. 

The  prescription  of  whatever  makes  for  the  de-  xhe 
velopment  of  all-round  social  efficiency,  both  in  and  outcomes 
beyond  the  school,  is  included  among  those  phases  of 
training  which  are  universally  needed  and  universal 
in  their  appUcation.  Whatever  else  may  be  included 
or  excluded  in  making  out  the  school  program  of  any 
child,  this  must  be  regarded  as  its  first,  its  most  neces- 
sary feature  —  that  training  which  will  develop  him 
as  a  social  being,  cooperating  willingly  with  the  forces 
that  make  for  social  unity  and  progress.  With  this  in 
mind,  we  may  sum  up  the  desired  outcome  of  disci- 
plinary prescription  for  conduct  as  follows: 


90  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

1.  The  ability  to  control  the  body  in  all  its  activities 
—  an  ability  that  does  away  with  scuffling, 
shuffling,  lunging,  lounging,  wriggling,  as  well  as 
other  evils  springing  from  imperfect  control. 

2.  The  ability  to  keep  silence  under  provocation. 

3.  The  ability  to  conform  readily  and  cheerfully  to 
the  uniform  requirements  of  the  school. 

4.  The  ability  to  submit  every  decision  as  to  conduct 
to  rigid  ethical  standards. 

5.  The  ability  to  yield  first  place  to  another,  without 
show  of  resentment  or  jealousy. 

6.  The  ability  to  hold  first  place  without  a  sign  of 
arrogance  or  condescension. 

7.  The  ability  to  yield  to  the  opinions  of  others  with 
grace  and  consideration,  where  no  ethical  sacrifice 
is  involved. 

Summary 

The  There  is  probably  no  direct  transfer  of  habits  or 

^esCTTption  skills;  but  from  many  concrete  examples  a  principle 
may  be  abstracted,  which  is  readily  applied  to  a  new 
situation  in  which  there  are  elements  similar  to  those 
already  met.  Using  this  as  a  basis  for  accepting  the 
possibility  of  discipline,  we  may  engage  in  any  kind  of 
disciplinary  activity  that  will  train  manners,  mind, 
hand,  and  heart.  It  is  the  duty  of  maturity  and  ex- 
perience to  prescribe  for  children  those  activities 
which  seem  best  calculated  to  develop  them  most  wisely 
and  fully;  and  to  force  them,  if  necessary,  to  follow  the 
course  of  training  thus  laid  down  for  them.  It  is  soft 
pedagogy  and  foolish  indulgence  which  seeks  to  avoid 
this  duty.     The  natural  desires  and  tastes  of  children 


DISCIPLINARY  ACTIVITIES  91 

are  not  necessarily  a  true  index  to  what  they  should 
do.  All  children,  whether  they  want  to  or  not,  should 
be  made  to  acquire  the  arts  and  information  and  moral 
qualities  which  will  make  them  useful  and  valuable 
citizens,  if  by  any  means  these  can  be  imparted  to 
them. 

The  prescription  of  educational  activities  for  children  Prescription 
is  based  on  the  experience  of  man  in  the  past,  and  may  ™af  needs  ^ 
not  always  be  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  present  or  the 
future.  Children  and  their  parents  object  to  present 
requirements  because  they  do  not  fulfil  their  immediate 
wishes  or  needs;  far-sighted  thinkers  understand  that 
they  are  inadequate  for  the  needs  of  both  present  and 
future.  We  are  at  present  in  the  midst  of  a  readjust- 
ment of  prescription,  a  remaking  of  curriculums. 

The  object  of  prescription  by  others  is  to  develop 
the  individual  to  the  point  at  which  he  may  wisely 
decide  for  himself  what  he  should  do  to  gain  his  ends. 
When  the  pupil  in  school  has  reached  this  point 
the  teacher  should  abdicate  his  power  in  favor  of  the 
pupil's  self-government.  Prescription  for  conduct  (the 
phase  of  prescription  which  directly  affects  discipline) 
aims  to  develop  self-control,  consideration  for  others, 
unselfishness,  and  definite  ethical  standards. 


Definition 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  DISCIPLINARY  PROCESS 

The  word  discipline  is  used  in  ways  so  various  that 
it  is  necessary  to  define  one's  use  of  it  in  any  given 
discussion.  In  its  widest  application  it  covers  the 
field  of  all  training  activities  whose  end  is  not  the 
immediate  result  attained,  but  that  of  strengthening 
some  ability,  perhaps  quite  different  from  the  special 
phase  of  ability  exercised.  When  used  thus  with  the 
end  of  training  abihties  not  directly  involved  in  the 
activities  in  question,  it  is  known  as  Formal  Discipline, 
and  has  been  the  bone  of  a  notable  amount  of  conten- 
tion as  to  whether  it  exists  or  not.  Used  in  its  most 
narrow  sense,  on  the  other  hand,  Discipline  refers  to 
specific  corrective  measures  for  infringements  of  definite 
points  of  school  law  or  custom.  In  this  book,  gen- 
erally, its  use  lies  between  these  two  extremes,  and 
indicates  any  and  all  measures  for  the  better  conduct 
of  the  school  with  reference  to  the  order  and  behavior 
of  his  pupils.  It  does  not  apply,  except  indirectly  and 
by  association,  to  questions  of  scholarship,  save  where 
such  apphcation  is  especially  noted. 
Positive  and  '^^^  ^^^^  requisite  for  really  successful  discipline  is 
negative        that  it  be  conceived  in  both  its  positive  and  its  negative, 

discipline  i   •      •  .  ,   . 

and  m  its  constructive  and  its  reconstructive  aspects. 
Virtue  has  been  for  a  long  time  considered  chiefly  in 


THE  DISCIPLINARY  PROCESS  93 

its  negative,  thou-shalt-not  applications,  and  has  but 
recently  established  its  positive,  thou-shalt  phase  in 
the  hearts  of  men.  As  we  find  goodness  taking  on 
new  values  when  seen  in  its  entirety,  so  also  discipline, 
which  is  the  process  of  developing  goodness,  finds  new 
values  when  seen  in  its  completeness.  The  teacher's 
part  is  not  only  to  inhibit  evil,  but  to  build  up  ten- 
dencies to  the  right  response  to  stimuli,  to  form  ideals 
that  beckon  and  prejudices  that  restrain,  all  contribut- 
ing to  the  making  of  strong,  normal,  good  boys  and 
girls.     This  is  the  disciplinary  process. 

Since  every  objective  act  is  first  a  subjective  act  —  The  ideal 
that  is,  since  everything  that  we  can  see,  hear,  or  do  teacher's 
must  first  be  thought  out  in  some  one's  mind — the  first  °^^ 
step  in  the  discipUnary  process  is  to  form  an  ideal  of 
good  conduct.  It  must  exist  first  in  the  mind  of  the 
teacher,  who  later  works  out  his  ideal  by  adapting  his 
own  and  his  pupils'  activities  to  that  end.  The  ade- 
quate ideal  is  the  result  of  observation  and  of  construc- 
tive combination.  That  is,  the  best  ideal  of  school 
conduct  is  made  by  seeing  good  conduct  in  many 
schools,  and  then  putting  together  the  elements  which 
will  fit  best  the  needs  in  the  particular  school  which 
the  teacher  has  in  mind  in  constructing  his  ideal. 
Good  conduct  in  a  manual  training  school  and  in  a 
classical  school  are  probably  two  very  different  kinds 
of  behavior,  for  behavior  should  be  suited  to  the 
ends  sought  and  the  means  used.  The  ideal  of  many 
teachers  is  one  of  observation  only,  a  copy  of  the  con- 
duct of  the  schools  with  which  they  are  acquainted. 
If  they  have  attended  poor  schools,  or  schools  whose 
methods  and  aims  are  dififerent  from  those  over  which 


94 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


Visiting 
schools 


The  ideal 
in  the 
pupils' 
minds 


they  are  to  preside,  the  ideal  will  be  a  poor  one, 
and  their  efforts  are  probably  foredoomed  to  failure. 
They  should  add  to  the  pictures  of  school-conduct 
which  their  experience  has  given  them,  new  pictures 
of  their  own  construction,  based  upon  the  needs  and 
aims  of  their  own  school,  and  those  to  be  had  from 
schools  of  recognized  merit. 

This  is  not  an  easy  thing  for  young  and  untrained 
minds  to  do,  and  probably  even  the  best  thinkers  among 
teachers  depend  for  their  ideals  of  conduct  chiefly  on 
observation  and  experience.  The  importance,  then,  of 
visiting  well-managed  schoolrooms  is  apparent;  and 
also  the  advantage  of  taking  careful  notes  upon  the 
details  of  management,  the  little  devices  for  reducing 
noise  and  confusion  and  for  making  work  pleasant  and 
interesting.  Then  the  teacher  who  is  forming  an  ideal 
for  his  own  use  must  adapt  the  good  ideas  he  has 
gained  to  the  situation  in  his  school,  building  up  a 
vivid  picture  of  the  orderly  conduct  of  every  exercise 
that  enters  into  its  work.  He  must  not  be  content  with 
a  hazy  idea  of  how  things  should  be;  his  ideal  must  be 
definite,  and  as  an  aid  to  this  it  is  advisable  to  write 
it  out. 

Having  thus  created  an  ideal  of  good  conduct  in  his 
own  mind,  the  teacher's  next  step  in  the  disciplinary 
process  is  to  induce  his  pupils  to  share  it  with  him,  that 
they  may  work  with  him  toward  its  realization.  This 
step  may  be  called  Establishing  the  Ideal,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  the  first  step  of  Creating  the  Ideal. 
There  are  four  means  of  establishing  an  ideal  of  con- 
duct in  the  minds  of  pupils,  not  to  be  used  separately 
or  in  sequence,  but  constantly,  simultaneously,  and  in 


THE  DISCIPLINARY  PROCESS  95 

numberless  ways  and  combinations.     The  one  in  most  -^ 

constant  use  by  the  best  teachers  is  that  of  assuming 
that  pupils  are  in  thorough  sympathy  with  the  teacher's  Assiunption 
wishes  and  plans,  and  are  anxious  to  do  everything  they 
can  to  make  the  school  a  success.  The  power  of  sug- 
gestion is  used  to  strengthen  the  hold  of  the  ideal. 
No  hint  of  the  possibility  of  disobedience  or  other  evil 
action  comes  from  the  teacher;  she  recognizes  evil  only 
when  it  actually  appears  before  her,  demanding  correc- 
tion. In  this  way  an  atmosphere  of  unity  is  created 
which  gives  the  ideal  a  good  chance  of  realization. 

When,  however,  pupils  do  not  fall  in  readily  with  Definition 
the  plans  made  for  them,  suggestion  and  assumption  ^i^gcation 
must  give  way  to  more  definite  means.  The  teacher 
finds  it  necessary  then  to  state  clearly  just  what  is 
expected,  and  sometimes  it  is  wise  to  keep  this  expecta- 
tion before  the  pupils  pretty  constantly  for  some  time, 
that  they  may  adopt  it  in  its  proper  form  —  and  not 
in  some  vague  misconception  of  their  own  —  into  their 
conscious  scheme  of  conduct.  For  instance,  the  teacher 
of  a  country  school  found  that  her  pupils  were  in  the 
habit  of  walking  into  the  schoolroom  with  muddy 
boots  and  shoes,  thus  covering  the  floor  with  an  un- 
sightly mass  of  dirt  within  a  few  moments  after  school 
had  opened  in  the  morning.  She  secured  a  thick  mat 
and  directed  them  to  wipe  their  feet  upon  it  as  they 
entered.  They  did  this  cheerfully,  but  gave  to  each 
foot  so  perfunctory  a  wipe  that  the  floor  was  in  almost 
as  poor  a  condition  as  before.  Noting  the  virtuous 
complacency  with  which  they  carried  out  her  request, 
the  teacher  decided  that  the  trouble  lay  in  their  inade- 
quate ideal  of  cleanliness.     She  thereupon  made  her 


96  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

ideal  very  clear  by  tacking  up  a  little  card  over  the 
door-mat.     It  read: 

Wipe  your  feet  until  there  is  no  more 
mud  to  come  off.  The  floor  under  your 
desk  should  not  show  even  one  muddy 
streak.      Can  you  do  as  well  as  that? 

The  pupils  made  an  attempt  to  meet  her  require- 
ments, and  soon  became  interested  in  keeping  the  floor 
about  their  desks  clean  and  neat.  About  the  middle 
of  the  winter  term  the  teacher  took  down  the  card,  and 
found  that  the  habit  of  cleanliness  was  established. 
Her  ideal  had  become  the  ideal  of  her  pupils,  after  she 
had  made  it  too  definite  and  clear  to  be  ignored. 
Correlation  A  third  way  of  estabhshing  the  ideal  is  to  correlate 
it  with  other  ideals  already  estabhshed.  The  teacher 
who  taught  her  pupils  to  wipe  their  feet  before  enter- 
ing the  schoolroom,  for  instance,  might  have  con- 
nected her  ideal  for  a  schoolroom  floor  with  the  ideal 
for  a  parlor  floor  which  their  mothers  had  taught  them 
at  home.  All  of  the  children  in  such  a  school  had 
probably  been  taught  to  have  a  care  for  the  floor  of 
the  "best  room";  and  the  schoolroom  is  the  "best 
room"  of  the  school.  An  ideal  once  estabhshed  be- 
comes a  norm  by  which  new  ideals  are  measured  and 
judged.  Johnny  thinks  it  reasonable  to  conform  to 
the  request  that  he  should  not  whisper  in  school,  be- 
cause he  has  already  been  taught  that  he  must  not 
whisper  in  church.  Marie  has  learned  that  eating  in 
school  interferes  with  good  work  and  is  a  breach  of 
manners,  and  when  her  teacher  tells  her  that  gum- 
chewing  is  just  as  bad,  she  believes  her,  because  there 


THE  DISCIPLINARY  PROCESS  97 

is  a  similarity  between  the  two  acts  that  she  can  see. 
Analogies  appeal  strongly  to  children.  "You  wouldn't 
think  of  doing  that  in  church,"  and  "Would  your 
mother  allow  you  to  act  in  that  way  at  home?" 
are  cogent  reasons  with  children.  The  correlation  of 
specific  requirements  works  toward  a  more  conscious 
generalization,  by  which  finally  definite  principles  of 
duty  may  be  developed.  That  the  same  obligations 
of  courtesy,  gentleness,  purity,  and  unselfishness  hold 
in  school,  home,  playground,  and  street;  that  we  owe 
respect  and  consideration  to  all,  equally,  without  regard 
to  station  or  possessions;  and  that  good  conduct  is  not 
to  be  changed  because  there  is  no  one  to  see  and  give 
it  credit  —  these  are  truths  that  the  correlation  of 
conduct-ideals  will  tend  to  estabhsh. 

A  fourth  and  very  effective  means  of  estabhshing  mustration 
the  ideal  is  by  illustration.  Children  learn  best  by 
means  of  concrete  examples,  and  every  instance  of  good 
conduct,  of  the  right  response  to  a  given  situation,  that 
can  be  brought  to  a  child's  notice,  becomes  a  prece- 
dent for  future  action.  The  teacher  who  is  trying  to 
form  good  street-manners,  for  instance,  not  only 
explains  to  her  pupils  the  correct  usage,  but  selects 
a  few  of  the  brightest  and  best-bred  children  to  illus- 
trate it.  They  play  at  taking  a  walk,  and  learn  to 
greet  and  salute  each  other  courteously  when  they 
meet.  One  boy  hobbles  along  as  a  feeble  old  man,  and 
is  helped  over  a  crossing  by  a  strong  and  clear-sighted 
boy.  An  old  woman  spills  a  bag  of  apples  on  the  side- 
walk, whereupon  two  little  girls  gather  them  up  and 
restore  them  to  her.  A  stranger  inquires  the  way  to 
a  public  building,  and  is  directed  by  three  boys  who 


98 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


Realization 

requires 

cooperation 


How 
instinct 
leads  to 
habit 


leave  their  marbles  to  help  him.  Little  folk  like  this 
sort  of  dramatization,  which  makes  the  ideal  of  conduct 
vivid  and  therefore  impressive;  and  are  able  to  repro- 
duce the  actual  motions  that  they  have  seen,  when 
they  have  not  the  initiative  to  formulate  a  response 
for  themselves.  The  action  is  reduced  to  a  mechani- 
cal formula  so  far  as  its  physical  phase  is  concerned, 
thus  making  the  subsequent  habit-forming  immensely 
easier. 

The  third  step  in  the  disciplinary  process  is  Realiz- 
ing the  Ideal.  In  this  final  step  of  realization,  which  is 
of  course  the  determining  element  in  the  condition  of 
the  school,  there  are  combined  the  efforts  of  both  pupil 
and  teacher.  The  pupil  contributes  inchnation  and 
will,^  the  teacher  a  knowledge  of  ways  and  means. 
And  since  conduct  is  so  largely  pure  habit,  the  greater 
part  of  his  direction  is  nothing  but  a  supervision  of 
habit-forming.  This  process,  with  its  complemental 
one  of  habit-breaking,  has  been  thoroughly  described 
in  many  books,  but  may  be  repeated  here,  since  no 
repetition  can  ever  over-emphasize  the  importance  of 
this  fundamental  process  in  education. 

Instinct  is  the  starting-point  in  habit-building, 
although  many  habits  are  only  an  artificial  inhibition 
of  instinct.  Instinct  brings  about  certain  movements, 
which,  being  satisfactory,  are  repeated.  For  instance, 
the  httle  boy's  curiosity  leads  him  to  watch  the  growth 
of  a  colored  picture  on  the  blackboard,  and  from  the 
instinctive  attention  which  he  gives  at  first,  the  teacher 
develops  a  habit  of  attention  to  whatever  is  placed 


^  Bagley,   Educative  Process,  p. 
City  School,  p.  247. 


214;    Perry,  Management   of  a 


THE  DISCIPLINARY  PROCESS  99 

upon  the  board.  The  act  which  instinct  has  initiated 
becomes  easier  with  each  repetition,  until  it  becomes 
automatic,  and  a  habit  is  established.  The  secret  of 
the  transition  from  the  instinctive  response  to  a  stimu-  1 

lus,  to  a  real  habit,  is  the  pleasure  of  the  first  and  subse- 
quent responses.  If  a  response  gives  pleasure,  it  is  /  li 
repeated.  If  it  gives  pain,  it  is  avoided.  The  ^ijy^^ 
significance  of  this  law  to  the  teacher  is,  of  course, 
that  he  may  so  control  conditions  that  the  instinc- 
tive responses  to  stimuli  in  the  schoolroom  have 
pleasant  or  painful  consequences,  according  to  the 
desirability  or  non-desirability  of  the  habits  that 
result. 

A  child  on  his  first  day  at  school  has  a  pencil,  which  A  good 
was  given  him  to  use  when  all  the  pupils  had  their  ®*^™*™* 
writing  exercise.  When  the  pencils  are  gathered  up, 
however,  his  acquisitive  instinct  prompts  him  to  cling 
to  his;  he  wants  to  take  it  home.  An  inexperienced 
teacher,  anxious  to  please  the  child  and  avoid  an 
unpleasant  scene,  might  let  him  take  the  pencil  home, 
but  a  wiser  one  expresses  her  disapproval  or  even  dis- 
pleasure, and  insists  on  its  return  to  the  box.  The 
unpleasant  effect  of  the  teacher's  disapproval  tends  to 
inhibit  the  desire  to  take  the  pencil  home,  and  to  give 
the  instinct  of  Imitation,  by  which  he  puts  his  pencil 
where  the  other  children  have  put  theirs,  a  chance  to 
function.  If  the  teacher  rewards  his  initial  act  with 
approval,  he  will  repeat  it  for  the  same  approval,  until 
he  has  formed  a  habit  of  conformity  with  regard  to 
pencils. 

Later,   habits  develop   themselves  by  combination 
into  other  habits,  often  directed  by  new  instincts  that 


lOO 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


Steps  in 
habit- 
building 


appear  from  time  to  time.  The  fundamental  instincts 
continue  to  give  motives  for  new  adjustments  and  new 
habits.  Teachers  must  know  what  these  instincts  are 
and  how  to  use  them,  for  there  is  never  a  time  when 
habit  becomes  entirely  distinct  from  its  instinctive 
basis,  or  when  helpful  instincts  may  not  be  utilized  to 
supplant  the  responses  whose  resultant  habits  are  bad. 
Instincts  have  been  classified  as  egoistic,  social,  moral, 
aesthetic,  and  intellectual.  Professor  E,  A.  Kirk- 
patrick  ^  classifies  them  as  self-preservative,  parental, 
social,  adaptive  (curiosity,  imitation,  play),  regula- 
tive (referring  to  duty),  and  a  set  of  miscellaneous 
instincts  which  include  those  of  construction  and 
expression,  rhythm  and  migration. 

The  knowledge  of  instincts  gives  one  an  inventory 
of  possible  means  of  initiating  habits.  The  actual 
process  of  habit-building,  as  analyzed  by  modern  psy- 
chologists, falls  into  these  successive  steps  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher: 

1.  Clarification  of  the  ideal  —  giving  the  child  to 
understand  exactly,  clearly,  just  what  is  expected  of 
him. 

2.  Securing  thoughtful,  conscious  repetitions  of  the 
act  that  is  to  be  made  a  habit.  Dr.  Bagley  especially 
insists  upon  the  attentive  repetition,  which  he  shows 
to  be  necessary  where  the  habit  to  be  taught  is  in 
opposition  to  natural  tendencies  —  that  is,  to  instinct, 
to  the  line  of  least  resistance.^ 

3.  Permitting  no  exceptions  imtil  the  habit  has  be- 
come automatic. 

1  Fundamentals  of  Child-Study,  pp.  51-63. 
*  Classroom  Management,  page  16. 


THE  DISCIPLINARY  PROCESS  loi 

4.  Repeating  the  drill  at  ever-lengthening  intervals 
until  there  can  be  no  question  of  the  establishment  of 
the  habit. 

The  shibboleth  of  success  Ues  in  the  third  of  these 
steps.     Here  is  where  teachers  fail.     They  become  tired, 
or  change  their  minds,  or  decide  that  they  have  been 
too  strict  when  children  complain  of  the  standard  set.     j\l^  \k^'^ 
Even  those  who  understand  .the  importance  of  persist-  .4-     j^  J  ^ 
ence  are  sometimes  prevented  from  keeping  up  the      » . -o^  (;;^J;^  - 
effort  by  a  pressure  of  work.     Some  indulgent  mother  ^"^ 
says  "unsympathetic,"  and  the  requirement  is  weak- 
ened or  withdrawn.     A  lazy  boy  insists  that  he  can't, 
and  the  foolish  teacher  believes  him,  or  at  least  washes 
his  hands  of  the  responsibility  of  making  him.     But 
the  really  sympathetic  teacher  is  he  who  foresees  the 
demands  that  will  be  made  upon  his  pupils  in  their 
maturity,  and  prepares  them  for  that  trial.     He  may 
be  Spartan  in  method,  for  perseverance  and  unbend- 
ing loyalty  to  the  ideal  require  a  sacrifice  of  present 
pleasure  to  future  gain. 

The  examples  of  failure  at  this  point  are  numberless;  Reasons 
they  account  for  probably  the  great  majority  of  dis-  *°'  ^^^^ 
ciplinary  breakdowns  that  are  the  teacher's  fault.  A 
teacher  directs  that  there  be  no  whispering  during  a 
recitation,  but  ignores  the  whispered  inquiry  of  the 
star  pupil  rather  than  interrupt  a  good  recitation. 
The  demand  was  probably  unwise,  but  not  nearly  so 
much  so  as  the  permitted  exception.  He  says  that 
there  is  to  be  no  pushing  in  the  line  when  school  is 
dismissed,  but  being  tired  at  four  o'clock  winks  at  the 
offense  of  the  boy  who  punches  his  classmate  in  front 
of  him  as  he  reaches  the  door.     He  tries  to  teach  his 


I02  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

pupils  to  say  "there  is  not"  rather  than  "there  ain't," 
and  "I  saw"  rather  than  "I  seen,"  but  draws  the  line 
at  interrupting  a  fluent  oral  composition  to  substitute 
the  good  form  for  the  bad.  Possibly  the  spirit  and 
pleasure  of  the  recitation  are  worth  more  than  the 
grammar  of  the  speaker;  but  it  is  certain  that  gram- 
matical forms  will  never  be  learned  unless  the  teacher 
puts  them  first,  concentrates  upon  them,  until  they  are 
mastered. 
Economy  This  drill  work  should  be  done  as  far  as  is  possible 

formation  i^  the  lower  grades,  where  the  process  need  not  be 
doubled  —  that  is,  where  bad  habits  need  not  be  un- 
learned in  addition  to  the  formation  of  good  ones. 
The  process  of  "breaking"  habits  is  one  that  is  called 
into  requisition  almost  constantly,  however,  owing  to 
the  lack  of  uniformity  and  excellence  in  our  school 
standards.  Children  are  allowed  to  do  some  things  in 
the  fond  supposition  that  they  are  permissible  acts, 
which  a  teacher  with  higher  standards  can  not  think 
of  permitting.  The  habit  already  fixed  must  be 
replaced  by  another.  The  process  is  similar  to  that 
of  learning  a  habit  where  no  conflicting  usage  exists, 
except  that  consciousness  must  be  more  alive  and 
attentive  at  the  point  of  actual  substitution.  There 
is  first  the  forcible  presentation  of  the  new  ideal  of 
conduct.  Then  the  thoughtful,  attentive  beginning 
of  the  new  habit,  with  the  guiding  authority  and 
remembrance  of  the  teacher  constantly  at  hand  to 
prevent  lapses,  or  to  secure  an  unpleasant  result  if 
lapses  occur.  Third,  the  continuation  of  the  active 
process  until  it  is  really  complete  —  until  an  excep- 
tionless habit  is  fixed. 


THE  DISCIPLINARY  PROCESS  103 

The  methods  of  preventing  the  exceptions  that  Preventing 
undermine  the  good  work  and  mar  its  ejffectiveness  are  *^^** 
based  upon  the  psychological  law  that  unpleasant  con- 
sequences tend  to  prevent  the  repetition  of  any  given 
act.  Usually  it  is  not  enough  simply  to  remind  a 
child  that  he  has  forgotten;  the  results  of  forgetting  " 
must  be  made  painful,  so  that  there  is  a  real  reaction 
from  the  forbidden  act.  Here,  then,  is  a  use  for  punish- 
ment, a  place  where  it  has  a  very  real  and  necessary 
fimction.  There  needs  to  be  a  painful  association 
estabhshed  with  the  forbidden  act,  an  association 
which  must  come,  as  a  rule,  ex  machina  from  the 
teacher. 

A  boy  who  had  been  under  the  care  of  a  governess  An 
was  put  into  the  pubUc  school.  He  was  a  bright  boy  i^istration 
and  had  a  good  disposition,  but  his  training  was,  of 
course,  faulty  on  the  side  of  socialization.  He  could 
not  break  himself  of  the  habit  of  speaking  aloud  when- 
ever he  thought  of  something  he  wanted  to  say,  for  he 
had  of  course  had  this  privilege  with  his  governess. 
Finding  after  a  few  days  that  the  school  atmosphere 
and  customs  in  themselves  did  not  effect  a  change  of 
habit,  his  teacher  explained  to  him  the  standard  of  the 
school  in  this  respect  and  the  reasons  for  it,  with  much 
emphasis  upon  its  advantages  to  everybody.  She 
called  his  attention  to  the  value  of  the  self-control 
that  was  developed  by  conformity  to  this  standard, 
so  that  the  boy  saw  that  there  was  something  to  be 
gained  for  himself  as  well  as  for  the  school.  This 
was  done  in  a  well-planned  private  talk,  for  no  one 
else  in  the  school  needed  just  that  guidance  at  that 
time.     It  would  have  been  embarrassing  and  unfair 


I04 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


Enlisting 
the  child 


to  have  taken  time  from  a  class  exercise  for  so  long  and 
personal  an  interview.  The  private  talk  has  great 
value  in  giving  to  the  coming  effort  the  importance 
that  will  give  it  a  strong  send-off,  an  initiation  of  suf- 
ficient force  to  carry  it  well  on  its  way.  This  boy  felt, 
after  the  talk,  that  he  was  undertaking  an  enterprise 
of  importance.  It  was  to  be  his  chief  business  in  life 
for  a  time  to  effect  the  good  habit  that  the  teacher 
required  of  him.  He  was  told  that  he  must  think  of 
it  constantly  when  he  was  in  the  schoolroom,  and 
encouraged  further  to  emphasize  it  by  keeping  a  record 
of  his  progress,  to  be  reported  nightly  both  to  his 
teacher  and  to  his  father,  whose  interest  the  teacher 
secured  by  telling  him  of  the  work  to  be  done. 

Where  children  are  thoughtful  and  sincerely  anxious 
to  conquer  bad  habits,  a  penalty  for  lapses  may  be 
arranged  with  them.  They  may  agree  that  giving  up 
ten  minutes  of  some  favorite  recreation  every  time  the 
sequence  of  the  good  habit  is  broken,  will  help  them; 
or  that  they  will  not  be  candidates  for  team  positions 
if  they  forget  more  than  a  reasonable  number  of  times. 
The  process  of  habit-forming  becomes  in  such  cases 
an  absorbing  game,  with  every  condition  in  favor  of 
progress.  Unfortunately,  many  children  are  not  dis- 
posed to  help  in  their  own  regeneration  in  this  delight- 
ful fashion.  They  are  stupid,  selfish,  lazy,  misled  at 
home  or  by  their  associates,  or  otherwise  unable  con- 
sciously to  cooperate,  thus  throwing  the  responsibility 
more  heavily  upon  the  teacher.  Even  in  such  cases, 
with  his  knowledge  of  the  unchanging  laws  of  habit 
as  his  strong  ally,  the  teacher  is  able  to  accomplish 
results.     He  must  see  to  it  that  the  effects  of  each  lapse 


THE  DISCIPLINARY  PROCESS  105 

from  the  new  standard  are  unpleasant  enough  to  tend 
toward  inhibition.  The  checks  used  may  range  all 
the  way  from  a  slight  reproof  before  the  class  to  isola-  / 
tion,  withdrawing  the  privilege  of  recitation,  suspension 
from  a  school  oflBice  or  honor,  or  even  corporal  punish- 
ment in  extreme  cases.  Two  characteristics  they  must  \ 
always  have;    they  must  be  sure  and  they  must  be^-^ 

immediate.     An  imcorrected  lapse  grows  strong  and  ^ 

multiplies  itself. 

The  boy  who  spoke  aloud  had  had  so  little  practice  a 
in  self-control  of  this  kind  that  the  teacher  felt  surer  ^^i^inent 
of  results  in  keeping  the  management  of  penalties  in  wore 
her  own  hands.     She  adopted  the  method  of  making 
him  stand  for  ten  minutes  each  time  he  spoke  aloud 
without  permission.     This  reminded  him  forcibly  of 
his  lapse,  and  carried  with  it  an  unpleasant  conscious- 
ness of  the  more  or  less  scornful  and  amused  regard  of 
his  schoolmates.     Old  habit  was  stronger  than  the  dis-  q 

comfort  of  this  scrutiny,  however.  He  grew  used  to 
the  position,  and  after  a  few  days  it  became  tolerable, 
then  a  joke.  By  a  process  of  accommodation,  not 
uncommon,  the  oft-repeated  disgrace  ceased  to  be  a 
disgrace,  and  so  ceased  to  be  a  deterrent.  Whereas 
at  first  he  rose  slowly  when  bidden  and  stood  with  >?.^*^  f 
shamed  eyes  glued  to  a  book,  he  later  reached  the     vj  Jk 

point  where  he  jumped  up  promptly  after  one  of  his 
breaches  of  the  law  and  grinned  cheerfully  at  his  friends, 
including  the  teacher,  as  he  took  what  had  ceased  to 
be  a  punishment.  Seeing  this,  the  astute  instructor 
changed  the  treatment.  She  adopted  the  opposite 
course,  and  instead  of  making  him  conspicuous  in  the 
schoolroom,  eliminated  him  from  it.     He  was  given  a 


i^ 


io6  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

desk  in  her  oflSce,  where  he  sat  for  a  half-day  after  each 
offense.  As  the  association  with  other  children  after 
a  rather  lonely  little  boyhood  was  the  greatest  charm 
of  the  public  school  to  this  particular  child,  this  punish- 
ment was  very  effective  and  quickly  gained  results. 
It  had  to  be  administered  only  three  times,  with  one 
repetition  a  fortnight  later  than  the  rest,  to  break  the 
bad  habit  and  establish  thorough  seK-control  so  far  as 
talking  in  school  was  concerned. 
The  place  Good  behavior  is  not  altogether  a  matter  of  habit, 

of  judgment  although  habit  is  by  far  the  greatest  part  of  it.  There 
come  to  'all  pupils  occasions  when  a  decision  must  be 
made  for  which  they  can  call  up  no  precedent.  Here 
a  judgment  must  take  the  place  of  an  habitual  response 
to  a  usual  situation.  Even  in  this  case,  of  course,  the 
mental  attitudes  and  processes  that  decide  the  answer 
given  are  largely  habitual;  but  in  a  narrow  sense  the 
decision  is  new.  With  no  previous  experience  to  guide 
him  in  making  his  decision,  the  tempted  boy  must  fall 
back  upon  some  general  principle  or  else  blindly  follow 
instinct.  If  general  principles  in  the  form  of  axioms 
have  not  been  given  him,  and  so  drilled  into  conscious- 
ness that  they  come  readily  to  mind  in  an  emergency, 
instinct,  always  with  us,  directs  the  decision.  The 
instinctive  response  is  rarely  the  best  one,  and  so  a 
point  is  lost  for  good  conduct. 

To  obviate  this  danger  teachers,  parents,  clergymen, 
and  children's  writers  seek  to  instill  moral  prejudices 
and  ideals.  All  morals-and-manners  instruction  has 
the  double  purpose  of  providing  ready-made  responses 
to  the  situations  that  may  be  foreseen,  and  guiding 
principles  for  the  decisions  that  no  foresight  can  safely 


THE  DISCIPLINARY  PROCESS  107 

predicate.  The  situations  of  a  student's  everyday  life 
at  school  may  be  pretty  accurately  provided  for  by  a 
wideawake  administration;  but  even  if  every  one 
could  be  met  by  the  appropriate  habit,  the  problems  The 
which  face  students  when  they  leave  school  and  enter  of  prejudice 
new  environments  would  have  no  guarantee  of  wise 
solution  without  some  more  general  provision.  Strong 
moral  prejudices  against  evil,  strong  convictions  of 
duty,  give  a  basis  for  the  right  kind  of  judgment. 
Practice  in  making  judgments  under  a  supervision  that 
restrains  action  from  unwise  ones,  develops  courage 
and  confidence  in  their  abiHty  to  decide  the  questions 
that  come  to  students.  A  country  boy,  transplanted 
to  a  school  in  a  crowded  district  of  New  York,  was 
adopted  by  a  city  gang  badly  in  need  of  recruits,  and 
introduced  to  metropolitan  ways.  Two  of  the  leaders, 
as  a  special  favor,  showed  him  some  tiny  white  tablets 
which,  they  said,  would  make  him  feel  better  than  he 
had  ever  felt.  The  country  boy  had  never  heard  of 
heroin,  and  had  no  idea  of  the  danger  involved  in  taking 
the  tablets.  But  as  he  weighed  the  advantages  of 
conformity  with  his  instinctive  hesitation  to  eat  some- 
thing new  and  strange,  there  came  to  him  an  axiom, 
repeated  to  the  point  of  triteness  by  the  teacher  of  his 
old  country  school: 

"Don't  do  anything  you  are  not  sure  is  right." 
The  injunction,  coming  readily  to  mind  because  it 
had  been  so  thoroughly  drilled  into  his  consciousness, 
saved  him  from  making  a  great  mistake.  Without  it, 
he  would  have  yielded  to  the  instinctive  desire  to 
receive  the  approbation  of  his  new  friends. 


io8  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

Summary 

The  disciplinary  process  is  the  establishing  and 
realizing  of  an  adequate  ideal  of  right  conduct.  The 
ideal  must  exist  first  in  the  teacher's  mind,  then  in  the 
minds  of  her  pupils.  Teacher  and  pupils  cooperate 
in  bringing  about  the  realization  of  the  ideal,  which 
involves  the  processes  of  creating  good  habits  and 
curing  bad  ones,  and  of  estabKshing  standards  that  will 
enable  pupils  to  make  the  right  decisions  when  new 
situations  are  presented  to  them,  for  response  to  which 
they  have  no  precedent.  Punishment  is  an  aid  to  good 
discipline  when  used  to  discourage  wrong  responses  to 
stimuli  and  so  to  build  up  good  habits. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE   SPIRIT  OF  THE   SCHOOL 

There  is  a  subtle  spiritual  essence  of  all  that  goes  on 
in  a  school,  both  in  the  minds  of  teacher  and  pupils 
and  in  every  open  and  hidden  act,  which  may  never 
be  exactly  described  or  analyzed,  but  which  the  most 
inexperienced  observer  feels  when  he  enters  a  school- 
room, and  which  gives  to  those  used  to  comparison 
and  judgment  of  schools  a  very  fair  index  of  what  is 
going  on  there.  It  is  called  the  school  spirit,  and  so 
potent  is  it  that  it  has  been  known  to  change  the 
whole  attitude  and  behavior  of  a  student  transferred 
from  one  school  to  another,  in  an  incredibly  short  time. 
It  is  the  teacher's  best  friend  or  his  worst  enemy.  No 
consideration  of  discipUne  could  possibly  ignore  its 
importance  in  fixing  the  status  of  the  teacher  and  his 
wishes,  and  the  success  attained  by  the  school. 

The  spirit  of  the  school  is  the  atmosphere  produced  Elements 
by  the  combination  of  the  attitudes  of  the  people  who  !°  d«te/™^ 

•'  ^  ^  ^      ^  ing  school 

compose  and  influence  it  —  the  teacher  first  of  all,  spirit  — 
then  the  pupils,  the  parents,  and  the  community,  teacher 
The  condition  of  the  environment  also  has  much  to 
do  with  it.  A  popular  fallacy  exists  to  the  effect  that 
the  teacher  alone  is  responsible  for  success  or  failure; 
and  many  a  teacher  has  borne  praise  or  blame — usually 
blame  —  for  conditions  for  which  he  was  not  chiefly, 


no  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

if  at  all,  responsible.^  In  the  teacher,  the  most  impor- 
tant element  is  the  attitude  in  which  he  approaches 
his  work.  Then  his  natural  ability,  his  preparation 
(which  gives  confidence  because  of  knowledge,  trained 
perceptions,  sympathy,  and  appreciation),  his  happi- 
ness in  his  work,  and  his  fitness  for  the  special  place 
in  which  he  finds  himself,  all  enter  into  the  making  of 
the  atmosphere  of  his  schoolroom.  The  last  point 
is  one  of  special  importance.     Many  teachers  are  partial 

I  ._ failures  because  they  are  misplaced.     Moved  from  the 

country  to  town,  from  town  to  country,  from  primary 
to  grammar  grade,  from  the  charge  of  a  room  to  special 
work,  teachers  who  are  dragging  out  a  conscientious 
martyrdom  would  become  really  happy  in  their  work. 
Add  to  these  his  abiUty  to  cooperate,  his  social  con- 
sciousness, and  the  elements  that  make  up  the  teacher's 
schoolroom  personality  are  fairly  included. 
In  the  Among  the  pupils,  respect  for  the  teacher  is  the 

pup  s  ^^g^  element  which  contributes  to  a  good  school  spirit. 

/  Then  comes  respect  for  the  rights  of  other  pupils,  a 
X  real  happiness  in  the  work  done,  good  training  in  habits 
which  fix  ideas  of  propriety  and  ideals  of  conduct, 
and  a  distinctly  formulated  aim  in  each  pupil's  mind, 
emphasizing  the  real  object  of  the  school,  the  purpose 
for  which  he  is  there  at  all. 
In  parents  Thorough  respect  for  the  school  and  cooperation 
with  it  are  the  elements  contributed  by  parents.  When 
extended  throughout  the  community  there  is  a  sol- 
idarity of  purpose  concerning  the  school  which  reacts 
upon  all  who  work  in  or  attend  it.     "School  spirit" 

^  For   an  entertaining  comment  on  this  fallacy,  see  Mary  C. 
Robinson,  "  Which  Class?"  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly,  February,  191 2. 


THE  SPIRIT  OF  THE  SCHOOL  iii 

is  present  in  that  community,  and  school  progress  is 
bound  to  come  there.  A  district  or  town  or  city 
that  knows  its  schools  and  is  proud  of  them,  that 
turns  out  to  school  elections  and  to  parents'  clubs 
and  last-day  programs,  furnishes  the  spiritual  en- 
vironment in  which  schools  flourish  and  bring  forth 
good  fruit,  a  himdred-fold. 

The  influence  of  physical  environment  upon  the  The  school 
spirit  of  the  school  is  incalculable.  Self-respect  and  ment°°" 
order,  industry  and  courtesy,  are  very  hard  to  foster 
in  a  tumble-down  building  or  a  dreary  school  yard. 
Districts  or  villages  that  have  poor  schools  should 
clean  up,  paint  over,  plant  out,  and  spend  some  money 
for  new  furniture  and  books.  Teachers  who  can  not 
arouse  a  real  interest  in  their  work  should  inaugurate 
a  campaign  of  expenditure.  People  become  vastly 
interested  in  a  short  time  in  things  in  which  they  have 
invested  their  money.  If  a  teacher  can  induce  the 
school  board  to  spend  enough  money  to  arouse  the 
ire  of  the  richest  farmer  in  the  vicinity,  and  then  set 
himself  to  prove  that  every  dollar  has  been  wisely 
spent  and  is  returning  big  profits,  he  will  have  no 
reason  to  complain  of  lack  of  interest  in  his  school. 
If  the  board  will  not  or  can  not  spend  the  amounts 
needed,  let  the  pupils  and  teacher  set  to  work  to  earn 
them;  the  cooperation  involved  will  often  begin  a 
new  order  of  friendly  zeal  in  school  things  that  the 
new  treasures  can  scarcely  improve. 

The  environment  should  be,  first  of  all,  neat  and  character- 
clean.     There  should  be  no  weeds  harbored  in   the  g^"e^* 
school  yard,  there  should  be  good  walks  to  the  front  vironment 
door  and  to  all  out-buildings,  scrapers  at  the  entrances, 


112 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


Helps  to 
good  order 


Comfort 


Beauty 


and  mats  and  brushes  that  dust  and  mud  may  be 
kept  out  of  the  study-room.  A  full  cleaning-outfit  is 
essential,  and  yet  there  are  many  country  schools 
whose  sole  equipment  is  one  broom  and  a  duster  fur- 
nished by  the  teacher.  The  vacuum  cleaning  system 
now  to  be  had  should  be  installed  in  every  new  build- 
ing erected,  as  it  not  only  cleans  more  thoroughly  than 
any  broom  or  brush  can,  but  also  raises  no  cloud  of 
dust  to  settle  on  furniture  or  fill  the  lungs. 

Certain  facihties  for  orderliness  are  next  in  impor- 
tance. These  include  such  things  as  glass-covered 
book-cases,  stands  for  dictionaries  and  globes,  boxes 
or  cupboards  for  all  working  paraphernalia,  and  cases 
for  umbrellas,  rubbers,  and  lunch-baskets,  or  individual 
lockers  in  larger  schools.  The  old-fashioned  double 
seats,  a  formidable  cause  of  bad  order,  are  still  to  be 
found  in  many  country  and  village  schools.  Up-to- 
date  drinking  arrangements,  separate  cloak-rooms 
for  boys  and  girls,  adequate  toilet  facilities,  and  room 
to  carry  on  school  work  without  crowding,  are  all 
helps  to  the  content  and  smooth-running  of  the  school, 
that  make  for  a  happy  school  spirit. 

Children  can  not  be  happy  and  contented  unless 
they  are  comfortable.  Cold  feet  and  hands,  ill  fitting 
seats,  and  long  formal  exercises  that  tire  the  body 
unduly,  produce  an  irritability  that  may  easily  show 
itself  in  fretful  outbreaks  or  uncontrollable  restlessness. 
Bad  light,  and  above  all  bad  air,  are  also  responsible 
for  a  lack  of  good  feeling,  for  unhappiness  and  dis- 
content. 

Mere  comfort,  moreover,  is  not  enough.  The  school 
environment  should  be  really  beautiful.     To  the  initial 


THE  SPIRIT  OF  THE  SCHOOL  113 

requirements  of  cleanliness,  order,  and  comfort  should 
be  added  the  charm  of  soft  color,  of  lovely  form  and 
proportion  in  the  school  building  and  furniture,  and 
the  helpful  suggestions  of  beautiful  pictures  and  casts. 
Such  beauty  has  a  refining  influence  that  nothing  else 
can  supply,  and  the  pride  in  lovely  things  possessed  in 
common  is  a  strong  tie  between  the  members  of  the 
school.  Children  respond  to  beauty  with  reverent 
delight,  sometimes  when  other  means  fail  to  arouse 
them. 

These  elements  —  characteristics  of  teacher,  pupils, 
parents,  the  community  at  large,  and  the  physical 
environment  —  all  help  to  determine  what  the  school 
spirit  shall  be.  Let  us  now  consider  the  ideal  school 
spirit,  that  vivifying  force  which  transcends  rule  and 
custom  and  makes  of  the  pupil-teacher  relationship 
a  delight  and  an  inspiration. 

A  fine  school  spirit  is,  like  all  fine  results  of  patient  its  prac- 
labor,  like  all  seemingly  fortuitous  gifts  of  sheer  talent,  ^'^^  *^ 
far  too  subtle  and  complex  a  thing  for  accurate,  cold- 
blooded analysis.  It  is  a  contagious  infection,  to  be 
caught  and  carried  in  a  happy  moment,  after  many 
weeks,  perhaps,  have  been  vainly  spent  in  trying  to 
win  it.  It  may  come  as  a  spontaneous  reward  for  the 
fulfilling  of  conditions,  as  a  rare  song-bird  chooses  that 
garden  for  his  home  wherein  is  a  bird-house  built  ready 
for  him.  It  may  grow  slowly,  supplanting  old  pre- 
judices reluctantly  surrendered,  old  notions  that  die 
hard;  or  come  quickly,  like  a  flower  that  wants  only 
warmth  and  moisture  to  hasten  bloom.  However 
it  may  come,  this  is  to  be  remembered;  it  is  not,  for 
all  its  rare  power  to  turn  school  drudgery  into  delight. 


114  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

a  chance  gift  from  the  gods,  but  a  reward  for  straight 
thinking  and  earnest  effort,  a  state  of  mind  to  be 
explained  by  definite  psychological  laws,  a  result  of 
certain  conditions  that  may  be  attained  and  controlled. 
There  is  nothing  mystic  and  nothing  fatalistic  about 
it.  Some  teachers  have  a  "knack"  for  attaining  it 
quickly  and  with  little  effort,  others  must  make  a  care- 
ful study  of  conditions  and  means  before  they  can 
compass  this  end;  but  all  earnest  and  big-hearted 
teachers  may  win  it,  and  find  in  its  presence  the  sub- 
tlest and  ablest  ally  that  teacher  ever  had. 
"  The  Downright  kindness,  amiability,  the  desire  to  please 

firr6fl.t6st  of 

these  is         and  help,  is  the  sine  qua  non  for  a  good  school  spirit. 

chanty  "  ^^  taskmaster  teacher,  setting  himself  sternly  to  secure 
a  given  requirement  from  his  pupils,  can  hope  to  achieve 
the  happiness  in  work  that  is  its  secret.  He  needs  all 
the  pride  and  pleasure  that  comes  to  the  true  enthu- 
siast in  any  profession  who  has  chosen  his  work  wisely 
and  pursued  it  earnestly.  Then  he  needs  considera- 
tion for  others,  quick  sympathy  and  eager  helpfulness. 
He  must  have  love  for  his  work,  for  his  pupils,  for  all 
mankind.  Teaching  is  a  work  that  takes  hold  on  all 
the  multiform  life  of  the  world  by  all  the  tentacles 
thrust  out  by  each  pupil  taught.  It  reaches  out  pre- 
hensile fingers  of  relationship  into  far  and  unknown 
regions,  achieving  a  spiritual  unity  with  unseen  and 
unguessable  phases  of  living.  Far  more  potent  than 
press  or  pulpit,  teaching  sends  out,  at  four  o'clock  on 
five  days  of  the  week,  its  thousands  upon  thousands 
of  unconscious  emissaries,  to  take  an  active  part  in 
moulding  the  life  of  the  world.  They  carry  with  them 
the  sensitive  reactions  of  spirits  impressionable  to  the 


THE  SPIRIT  OF  THE  SCHOOL  115 

treatment  they  have  received,  the  spirit  of  the  men  and 
women  who  have  had  them  in  charge  through  the 
working  day.  Can  any  teacher  refuse  such  a  respon- 
sibility? Can  any  teacher  tolerate  pettiness,  time- 
serving, prejudice,  superficiality,  when  the  cry  of  the 
world  may  be  answered  so  helpfully  through  the  chil- 
dren? Even  where  stem  measures  must  be  adopted, 
the  spirit  of  love  and  helpfulness  bears  witness  of  itself. 
It  can  never  be  mistaken  where  it  exists. 

But  the  spirit  of  friendly  helpfulness  must  be  found  a  mischiev- 
also  among  the  pupils,  and  among  a  working  majority  °"^  ""^^ 
of  them  at  that,  if  it  is  materially  to  dominate  the 
methods  and  results.  A  very  common  maxim  is 
that,  since  love  begets  love,  pupils  will  invariably 
respond  to  the  friendly  and  helpful  spirit  of  a  teacher 
with  a  friendly  and  docile  attitude.  This  is  not  true. 
It  is  usually  true,  but  there  are  cases  where  outside 
influences,  adverse  to  the  spirit  of  love,  are  stronger 
than  that  of  a  teacher.  A  really  sincere  and  able 
teacher,  indeed,  may  labor  for  years  in  a  community 
without  being  able  to  produce  a  general  social  spirit, 
although  his  efforts  may  bring  forth  fruit  in  individual 
cases.  But  a  spirit  of  love  and  helpfulness  requires 
that  the  influential  majority  of  any  group  agree  in 
their  attitudes.  The  influences  of  street  and  home  and 
religion,  or  rather  of  religious  teachings,  have  their 
part  in  determining  the  spirit  of  the  school,  as  well ' 
as  the  attitude  of  the  teacher.  Given  favorable  con- 
ditions in  these  respects,  the  achievement  of  the  object 
sought  is  easily  within  the  teacher's  power. 

A  good  school  spirit  is  also  a  spirit  of  earnest,  hard  The  spirit 
work.    It  recognizes  a  goal  for  the  efforts  of  each, 


ii6 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


The 

inspiration 
of  the 
worth- 
while 


and  sets  out  for  that  goal  in  sober  earnest.  The  guide 
for  this  journey  of  achievement  accepts  no  shoddy 
work,  permits  no  flimsy  excuses;  his  requirements  are 
inexorable  and  his  standards  high.  It  is  worth  while 
to  work  under  these  conditions,  with  the  knowledge 
that  what  is  done  is  done  with  a  purpose,  is  appreciated, 
is  nicely  appraised.  The  school  is  a  factory  ^  which 
produces  ability  and  power  as  other  factories  produce 
doors  and  chairs  and  garments.  But  it  is  better  than 
a  factory,  for  the  workers  keep  all  they  produce.  They 
are  capitaUsts,  not  hired  workmen. 

A  lively  conception  of  the  bigness  of  the  task  is  the 
greatest  help  in  the  development  of  a  work-spirit  in 
the  school.  The  years  of  training  are  so  few,  the  time 
so  short,  the  need  so  great;  the  demands  of  life  so 
varied,  the  opportunities  so  without  number,  and 
competition  so  keen  — ■  how  can  all  the  preparation 
needed  be  crowded  into  the  limited  years  of  school 
life?  If  any  vision  of  the  possibilities  that  lie  beyond 
them  can  be  given  to  little  children,  if  any  adequate 
idea  of  the  rewards  of  effort,  they  will  work  to  achieve 
the  ends  they  see.  In  other  words,  motivation  is  the 
keynote  of  the  industrial  hum.  Give  incentives,  and 
you  receive  back  earnest  work.  Arouse  the  imagina- 
tion by  picturing  the  prizes  to  be  gained,  and  the  will 
is  stimulated  to  attain  them.  The  wondrous  improve- 
ment noted  in  school  spirit  and  cooperation  where 
manual  training,  agriculture,  and  household  science 
have  been  introduced  into  schools,  is  due  chiefly  to 
the  fact  that  where  before  the  connection  between 
studies  and  future  welfare  had  to  be  taken  on  faith  in 
^  Bagley,  Classroom  Management,  page  4. 


THE  SPIRIT  OF  THE  SCHOOL  n; 

the  wisdom  of  their  elders,  it  is  now  patent  to  the  mind 
of  even  the  most  sluggish.  There  is  something  "in 
sight"  to  be  worked  for.  For  those  who  think  more 
abstractly  or  have  work  of  another  sort  in  mind  for 
themselves,  the  new  subjects  have  no  such  helpful 
influence.  But  in  general  it  may  be  said  that  the 
spirit  of  work  is  the  mental  habit  of  holding  the  future 
above  the  present. 

The  habit  of  ready  obedience  gives  unity  and  smooth-  Obedience 
ness  to  all  the  working  of  the  school.     It  depends 
largely  upon  the  wisdom  and  tact  of  the  teacher,  who 
must  give  practice  and  reasonable  directions  if  they 
are  to  be  followed  without  question.     Children  obey   ^ 
a  beloved  teacher  willingly,  and  one  who  is  not  beloved      J^-^ 
with  at  least  a  sense  of  justice  and  the  reasonableness 
of  conformity,  if  his  demands  are  sensible   and,   to 
their    thinking,    justifiable.     Parental   and   social   in- 
fluence has  much  to  do  with  the  existence  of  the  spirit.    ^^-. 

Above  all,  if  possible,  there  should  be  a  spirit  of  Joy  ) 
joy  in  work  and  play.  Just  pure  happiness,  the  pleasure 
of  doing  a  good  thing  well  and  then  entering  with  zest 
into  the  fun  that  is  childhood's  inheritance  and  right, 
is  a  real  object  to  be  gained.  Joy  is  the  normal  con- 
dition of  childhood  and  youth,  and  is  the  mother, 
as  Goethe  says,  of  all  the  virtues.^  All  the  lovely 
colors  and  beautiful  forms  that  our  schoolrooms  and 
school  premises  should  boast,  contribute  to  it.  All 
the  games  and  tasks  of  childhood  and  the  sports  and 
ambitions  of  adolescence  should  be  tuned  to  it.  To 
those  to  whom  privation,  or  the  lack  of  love  and  sym- 
pathy at  home  have  decreed  an  unhappy  childhood, 

*  Adolf  Langguth,  Goethe's  PUdagogik,  Halle,  1886,  page  194. 


ii8  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

the  school,  which  is  a  second  home  that  all  may  share, 
brings  joy  as  it  brings  care  and  thoughtful  guidance. 
It  is  properly  a  part  of  the  life  of  the  organization, 
one  of  its  objects  and  aims. 
The  fear  of  There  is  a  Puritanic  distrust  of  pleasure,  happily 
pleasure  ^^  unhappily  almost  disappeared  from  the  field  of 
social  thought,  that  still  lingers  with  some  teachers. 
The  writer  remembers  one  yoimg  girl,  teaching  her 
first  country  school,  who  forbade  her  pupils  their 
great  annual  bonfire,  to  which  they  looked  forward  all 
the  year,  because,  as  she  said,  the  fun  of  that  bonfire 
was  the  chief  thought  in  their  minds  throughout  the 
fall.  The  bonfire  was,  indeed,  an  annual  festival, 
/  for  which  leaves  and  brush  were  gathered  gleefully 
from  the  first  day  of  school.  It  was  probably  a  shame- 
ful economic  blunder,  but  of  that  the  teacher  was  as 
ignorant  as  the  pupils.  When  the  frosty  days  of 
late  November  came,  usually  just  before  the  Thanks- 
giving recess,  all  the  young  people  of  the  neighborhood 
gathered  at  the  close  of  school  to  dance  about  the  bon- 
fire. It  was  made  in  the  middle  of  a  wide  road,  that  the 
forests  on  either  side  might  be  safe;  and  all  who  wished 
to  brought  their  suppers  and  staid  until  the  last  embers 
sent  up  their  last  sparks.  The  conscientious  but 
misguided  girl  who  forbade  the  yearly  fire-festival 
not  only  destroyed  the  happiness  and  good-nature  of 
her  boys  and  girls  for  the  term,  but  discouraged  a 
custom  that  was  growing  into  a  tradition.  We  have 
far  too  little  of  festival-making  of  that  sort  in  our 
coimtry  —  the  kind  of  festival  that  grows  up  spon- 
taneously and  is  simple  and  innocent  and  at  the  same 
time  recreative.     Such  play  need  not  at  all  interfere 


THE  SPIRIT  OF  THE  SCHOOL  119 

with  hard  and  purposeful  work,  as  the  inexperienced 
girl  in  this  instance  thought  it  would.  The  teacher 
who  followed  her  had  the  good  sense  to  reestabUsh 
the  great  bonfire  as  a  school  institution,  and  to  favor 
it  frankly.  When  it  was  over,  she  filled  the  aching 
void  of  anticipation  by  planning  an  Arbor  Day  cele- 
bration in  the  spring,  and  her  pupils  found  as  much 
joy  in  poring  over  florists'  catalogues  and  drawing 
the  plans  for  a  school  garden  as  they  had  in  raking 
leaves  in  the  fall. 

The  custom  of  making  much  of  school  hohdays  Growth 
and  celebrations  is  growing,  and  is  at  the  same  time  piay-spirit 
becoming  less  formal,  more  spontaneous.  The  old 
set  programs,  in  which  every  child  appeared  in  his 
best  clothes  to  "speak  a  piece,"  are  being  partially 
supplanted  by  happy  out-of-doors  excursions  and  in- 
door parties  —  a  change  that  adds  joy  to  the  occasion 
for  the  children  and  vastly  lessens  the  labor  involved 
for  teachers.  Some  schools  are  nourishing  a  par- 
ticular fesrival,  building  up  local  tradition  about  some 
celebration  of  their  own,  often  of  a  semi-historical 
nature.  The  pageant  and  the  school-play  combine 
pleasure  and  valuable  training.  Play-grounds  have 
a  recognized  place  in  the  educational  scheme.  The 
happiness  of  childhood  is  an  object  to  which  any 
number  of  thoughtful  men  and  women  give  their  time 
and  attention.  The  spirit  of  joy  is  growing.  Let  it 
increase  and  multiply  without  stint. 

All  these  elements  in  the  ideal  school  spirit  make  Unity 
up  a  mass  of  interests  common  to  both  teachers  and 
pupils,  what  may  be  called  the  working  unity  of  the 
school.     By  mutual   concession   and   the  reciprocity 


The 
secret 


1 20  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

of  effort  that  is  possible  where  there  are  common  ends 
to  be  gained,  it  may  be  won  even  from  the  conflict- 
ing ideas  of  youth  untrained  and  of  disciplined  ma- 
turity. And  this  fine  oneness  of  spirit  is  the  secret 
of  the  most  easily-maintained  self-discipline  that  a 
school  may  know.  It  depends,  says  Arnold  Tompkins, 
of  unity  (i)  on  certain  external  conditions,  (2)  on  the  teaching 
process  itself.^  It  eliminates  that  grim  antagonism 
of  teacher  and  pupils,  growing  out  of  the  imposition 
of  tasks  whose  end  and  justification  children  can  not 
understand,  which  lies  at  the  root  of  so  large  a  part 
of  school  trouble.  It  is  the  solvent  which,  receiving 
the  varied  and  seemingly  irreconcilable  elements  that 
exist  in  every  school,  gives  in  the  end  a  precipitate  of 
new  knowledge  and  power. 

Summary 

Teacher,  parents,  children,  and  community  con- 
tribute to  the  spirit  of  the  school,  which  depends  upon 
the  suitableness  of  the  environment,  and  the  good 
will,  industry,  obedience,  and  happiness  that  are  in 
the  school. 

^  Philosophy  of  Teaching,  page  288.  "  A  right  act  in  school  is 
one  which  secures,  or  tends  to  secure,  unity  between  the  mind  of 
the  teacher  and  the  mind  of  the  pupil  in  the  act  of  instruction." 


CHAPTER  rX 

AN  ANALYSIS  OF  OFFENSES  COMMON  IN  AMERICAN 
SCHOOLS 

That  complexity  of  motivation  which  makes  it  dif- 
ficult to  deal  justly  with  offenders  against  school 
order,  makes  it  still  more  diflScult  to  classify  offenses. 
Any  approximate  analysis  and  classification  of  the 
forms  of  bad  order  in  our  schools,  must  inevitably 
be  marred  by  countless  overlappings  and  coincidences 
of  character,  motive,  and  result.  The  analysis  which 
follows  is  necessarily  incomplete,  unavoidably  in- 
accurate. Other  bases  of  classification  than  the  one 
followed,  which  is  one  of  causal  relation,  were  rejected 
because  they  involved  a  still  greater  degree  of  over- 
lapping and  duplication.^  It  is  hoped  that  this  analysis 
may  help  teachers  to  fijid  causes,  and  thereby  to  pro- 
vide remedies  for  the  troubles  in  their  own  schools. 

I.  Offenses  of  Misdirected  Energy      ^ 

These  are  the  first  result  of  the  imposition  of  a  formal 
regimen  upon  active,  untrained,  life-and-motion-loving 
children.     There  is  nothing  vicious  whatever  in  them. 

^  The  Schoolmasters'  Club  of  Minneapolis  appointed  a  committee 
in  191 1  to  investigate  the  causes  of  student  delinquency  or  failure 
in  school  work.  The  report  of  this  committee,  while  not  intended 
to  bear  especially  up>on  the  question  of  school  discipline,  is  very 
helpful  in  giving  an  idea  of  the  causes  which,  of  course,  affect  both 
behavior  and  scholarship.  It  is  given  in  the  School  Review,  vol. 
20  (1912)  pp.  593-605. 


122 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


WMspering 


Note- 
writing 


They  are  the  outcroppings  of  a  vitality,  a  capacity 
for  action,  which  can  never  quite  be  crammed  into  the 
measuring-cup  of  a  school  program.  To  reduce  the 
amount  of  energy  which  runs  to  waste  and  becomes  a 
nuisance,  larger  measuring-cups  must  be  provided. 
Variety  of  occupation  is  today  largely  reducing  the 
amount  of  this  kind  of  disorder. 

Whispering  is  the  first  and  most  constant  outlet 
for  left-over  interest  and  love  of  action.  It  becomes 
a  more  serious  offense  when  persisted  in  because  of  a 
deliberate  desire  to  bait  the  teacher,  or  when  it  is 
modified  into  a  low  rumbling  monotone  of  communi- 
cation. But  in  its  simplest  form  it  is  merely  a  result 
of  as  yet  imperfect  self-control,  and  like  all  other 
offenses  of  this  class,  deserves  patient  and  unfailing 
help  from  the  teacher,  who  is  guide  and  prompter  in 
the  process  of  habit-formation,  which  will  finally  do 
away  with  the  evil. 

Another  form  of  communication  which  is  more  dif- 
ficult to  deal  with  is  note-writing.  The  pupil  who 
is  too  closely  watched  to  whisper,  or  who  fears  the  con- 
sequences of  whispering,  but  who  stiU  has  not  more 
wholesome  things  to  absorb  his  time  and  interest, 
takes  to  note-writing.  The  evil  begins  as  soon  as  the 
art  of  expression  by  writing  has  been  sujSSiciently 
mastered  to  permit  its  use  —  usually  in  the  third 
grade  —  and  continues  through  the  high  school.  The 
notes  commonly  passed  from  hand  to  hand  in  school 
fall  into  these  groups: 

I.  The  note  of  resentment  for  punishment  or  cor- 
rection. "She's  a  mean  old  thing.  All  that 
hair   ain't  hers.     I  know   she  wears   a   switch. 


ANALYSIS  OF  COMMON  OFFENSES        123 

My  mother  says  her  father  used  to  drive  a  brewery 
wagon,  and  now  she  puts  on  all  sorts  of  airs." 
This  is  a  sample  of  the  way  in  which  youth  seeks 
sympathetically  to  bind  up  the  woimds  of  hurt 
pride. 

2.  Notes  concerning  lessons  —  usually  to  ask  for 
an  assignment. 

3.  Notes  planning  festivities  for  after-school  hours. 
"Ask  your  mother  if  you  can  come  over  to  our 
house  tonight  after  supper.  My  sister  is  home 
from  boarding  school  and  she  knows  lots  of  ways 
to  have  fun  and  scare  the  teachers." 

4.  Notes  planning  school  mischief,  "ive  got  a  toad 
in  my  desk  in  a  box  you  ask  mary  to  show  you 
where  Histry  lesson  is  and  ill  put  toad  on  her 
desk  an  wen  she  hollers  ill  grab  it  and  tell  mis 
Smith  it  musta  got  in  the  window." 

5.  Gossiping  notes.  All  sorts  of  school,  family,  and 
community  news  is  distributed  by  busy  little 
missives  that  slip  about  a  schoolroom  as  if  by 
magic.  It  could  be  told  at  recess  just  as  well, 
but  the  risk  of  note-writing  adds  a  romantic 
spice  of  adventure  to  this  method  of  commxmica- 
tion. 

6.  Notes  asking  or  giving  help  in  time  of  examina- 
tion or  quiz. 

7.  Love-notes.    These  often  begin  in  the  third  grade, 

and  continue  with  intermissions  throughout  the 
grades  and  the  high  school. 

8.  Obscene  notes.  A  rather  common  manifesta- 
tion of  a  problem  which  will  be  mentioned  under 
the  head  of  offenses  due  to  physical  causes. 


124 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


Unconscious 
vandalism 


Teasing 


Another  outlet  for  pent-up  energy  is  the  soft  humming 
or  singing  which  is  so  hard  to  locate  in  a  crowded  room. 
Noisy  movements,  especially  of  the  feet,  and  restless  trips 
to  wastepaper  basket  or  drinking-fountain,  are  others. 

Then  there  is  the  aimless,  often  unconscious  marking 
of  school  furniture,  which  even  grown  people  sometimes 
find  a  welcome  exercise  for  idle  hands.  In  its  uncon- 
scious stages  this  vandalism  is  stimulated  most  by  the 
sight  of  marks  already  existing,  which  it  is  very  natural 
to  deepen  and  strengthen  if  one  has  a  pencil  or  knife 
in  one's  hand.  This  shows  that  the  trouble  is  also 
largely  imitative  in  origin. 

Pin-sticking,  the  throwing  of  paper-wads,  tacks, 
or  chalk,  pulKng  girls'  hair,  and  the  toilet  operations 
in  which  httle  girls  engage  with  a  naive  disregard  to 
the  publicity  of  their  surroundings,  are  primarily  the 
result  of  too  much  leisure.  The  pin-sticking  and  hair- 
pulling  are  examples  of  the  satisfaction  of  a  childish 
sense  of  fun,  usually  innocent  enough  in  itself,  which 
suggestion  and  guidance  may  turn  into  other  channels. 
Some  girls  wiU  continue  to  braid  the  hair  of  the  girl 
in  front  of  them  at  every  opportunity,  until  other 
means  of  gratifying  their  love  of  the  orderly  and 
beautiful,  together  with  a  talk  on  the  taste  of  such 
proceedings,  substitute  a  better  occupation. 


II.  Offenses  of  Resentful  Resistance  to  an 
Imposed  Control 

There  is  today  a  great  hue  and  cry  all  over  the  land 
against  the  formality  and  artificiaHty  of  our  school 
curriculum.  It  is  a  law-abiding  form  of  a  resentment 
which  has  long  existed,  but  which  formerly  showed 


ANALYSIS  OF  COMMON  OFFENSES         125 

itseK  in  all  forms  of  school  lawlessness  among  pupils, 
and  in  lack  of  support  and  cooperation  among  parents. 
Having,  in  this  day  of  self-analysis,  found  the  nature 
and  cause  of  its  complaint,  this  resentment  has  emerged 
partly  from  the  stage  of  its  blind  resistance,  from  the 
day  of  force,  and  comes  out  into  the  open  with  a  manly 
statement  of  its  grievance.  It  has  not  only  become 
self-conscious,  but  it  knows  the  remedy  needed  —  a 
course  of  study,  a  school  life,  more  closely  answering 
the  needs  of  the  school  children. 

But  the  response  to  this  demand  on  the  part  of  Why  change 
school  authorities  is  necessarily  slow  and  imperfect,  dowiy*^ 
Even  if  they  knew  what  equipment  would  be  thoroughly 
adequate,  the  means  to  supply  it  are  often  wanting; 
while  the  inertia  of  accepted  institutions  is  hard  to 
overcome.  There  is  a  dearth  of  trained  teachers  for 
new  work.  There  remains  still  in  our  schools,  there- 
fore, much  against  which  pupils  feel  a  spirit  of  resistance 
and  even  of  rebellion.  Some  of  this  is  just,  much  of 
it  unjust,  growing  out  of  the  notorious  assurance  of 
youth  that  it  knows  better  what  is  good  for  it  than 
all  the  sages.  Moreover,  there  is  a  resentment  which 
is  conscious,  a  deliberate  feeling  of  being  imposed 
upon  by  powers  which  can  not  be  overcome  but  which 
can  be  hampered  in  doing  their  will;  and  an  uncon- 
scious, or  rather  unformulated  resentment  which  feels 
the  teacher  to  be  an  enemy  and  delights  in  teasing  and 
tormenting  him.  The  teacher  represents  to  his  pupils 
the  whole  system  of  prescribed  training,  and  is  there- 
fore an  object  for  the  venting  of  their  resentment  at 
being  forced  to  do  what  they  dislike,  and  that  for  which 
many  of  them  have  no  especial  aptitude. 


126  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

This  resentment  amounts  in  some  schools  to  a  defi- 
nite and  universal  understanding.  It  was  strong  in 
the  frontier  schools  of  an  earlier  day,  wherein  tortured 
schoolmasters  strove  single-handed  with  the  natural 
resentment  of  boys  whose  heroes  were  the  rough 
subduers  of  the  wilderness,  and  who  were  learning  arts 
of  the  usefulness  of  which  they  had  the  strongest  doubts. 
It  is  very  strong  today  in  some  of  the  schools  of  our 
great  cities,  where  large  numbers  of  foreign  children 
are  being  forced  into  the  mould  of  little  Americans, 
much  against  the  grain  of  both  their  inherited  customs 
and  the  contamination  of  their  American  city  sur- 
roundings. And  there  is  enough  of  it  still  in  almost 
all  of  our  schools,  good  and  bad,  town  and  country, 
to  make  it  a  chief  problem  for  all  teachers. 
Disobedi-  DeHberate  disobedience  is  usually  to  be  attributed 

truancy  ^o  this  source.  When  so  founded,  it  is  among  the 
hardest  of  all  to  deal  with,  for  it  fortifies  itself  by  an 
appeal  to  justice,  to  the  moral  law.  The  pupil  often 
feels  himself  honestly  aggrieved.  A  frank  and  im- 
partial teacher  must  often  in  such  cases  feel  himself 
in  the  wrong,  being  the  tool  of  an  inadequate  and 
mistaken  system.  Besides  the  pupil  who  openly 
resists  the  control  of  the  school,  there  is  the  one  who 
avoids  it  by  running  away.  Truancy  is  largely  an 
imitative  offense,  but  in  its  origin  it  is  a  protest  against 
the  system  that  keeps  a  boy  pegging  at  books  when 
nature  and  hfe  are  calKng.  Boys  "play  hookey"  to 
go  a-fishing,  to  earn  money,  or  to  play.  The  boy  to 
whom  the  school  program  offers  Httle  intrinsic  interest, 
may  force  himself  to  the  distasteful  task  while  cold 
weather  lasts,  but  when  spring  arrives  the  call  of  real 


the  will' 


ANALYSIS  OF  COMMON  OFFENSES        127 

interests  transcends  the  force  of  convention.  One 
boy  dares  to  express  his  idea  of  relative  values  by 
deserting  school,  and  others  follow.  A  series  of  school 
expeditions  would  answer  the  need  of  the  boys  and 
take  away  their  ground  for  resentment,  but  few  Ameri- 
can teachers  are  trained  to  conduct  such  trips,  while 
the  American  people  look  with  suspicion  upon  what 
they  regard  as  a  shirking  of  the  teacher's  duty.^ 

A  great  variety  of  ofifenses  are  due  to  the  same  grim  "Breaking 
antagonism,  happily  growing  less  and  less  as  better 
conditions  prevail.  The  necessity  of  "breaking  the 
will,"  much  preached  to  a  former  generation,  forced 
many  naturally  sympathetic  teachers  to  stern  measures 
which  inevitably  aroused  this  feeling.  Inventive  child- 
hood foimd  a  hundred  ways,  some  of  which  have 
become  traditional,  in  which  to  show  it.  They  found 
that  stamping,  cat-calling,  making  faces,  faiHng  to 
hear  directions,  snow-balHng,  dragging  the  feet,  eating 
in  school,  and  countless  other  puerile  amusements, 
annoyed  teachers;  and  because  they  annoyed  teachers, 
rather  than  because  of  any  intrinsic  pleasure  in  them, 
these  offenses  were  committed.  Weak  teachers  have 
had  to  endure  them,  while  strong  teachers  have  ex- 
pended upon  their  correction  an  incalculable  amount 
of  energy  sadly  needed  for  better  causes.  At  last  the 
whole  attitude  which  gave  rise  to  them  is  being  trans- 
formed by  a  multitude  of  changes  in  and  additions  to 
the  curriculum,  which  are  curing  the  idea  that  teacher 

'  Truancy  in  some  dty  and  in  some  country  schools  proves  to 
be  due  to  demands  for  work  from  the  child  by  parent  or  guardian. 
This  absence  is  not  of  course  an  offense  on  the  part  of  the  child,  and 
should  be  corrected  by  bringing  the  proper  pressure  to  bear  upon 
those  really  to  blame. 


128  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

and  school  are  an  unsympathetic  despotism.  To  the 
same  end,  the  untrained  or  time-serving  teacher  \sill 
in  time  give  place  to  those  whose  friendly  tact  will 
entirely  overcome  the  old  resentment  toward  school 
and  school  requirements. 

III.  Offenses  Due  to  Physical  Conditions 

A  large  proportion  of  offenses  is  due  to  preventable 
or  controllable  faults  in  the  physical  environment, 
or  to  pecuHarities  in  the  physical  condition  of  pupils. 
The  former  yield  to  correction  so  generally  that  there 
is  small  excuse  for  their  continuance;  the  latter  are  far 
more  puzzling  and  difficult  to  deal  with. 

Results  of  the  Physical  Environment 

Tempera-  A   pervading  restlessness  is   a  common   indication 

*"*  that  the  schoolroom  is  either  too  warm  or  too  cool. 

All  teachers  learn  to  make  allowance  for  inattention 
and  discontent,  for  wigghng  and  sputtering  and  dis- 
turbing trips  to  the  cloakroom  for  wraps,  when  the 
room  is  below  normal  temperature;  and  for  indolence 
and  abstraction  when  it  is  too  warm  for  comfort.^ 
In  country  schools  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  huddle 
the  children  closely  about  a  red-hot  stove  to  keep  their 
toes  from  being  frosted,  so  poorly  constructed  are  the 
little  schoolhouses.  Such  discomforts  and  informality 
are  not  conducive  to  earnest  study,  nor  can  the  teacher 
^  insist  on  a  very  high  standard  of  behavior  in  children 
for  whom  so  little  thought  has  been  taken.  So  many 
improved  devices  are  now  on  the  market  for  controlling 

1  See  Dexter,  "  School  Deportment  and  the  Weather,"  Educa- 
tional Review,  Feb.,  1900,  pages  160-168. 


ANALYSIS  OF  COMMON  OFFENSES        129 

the  temperature  and  humidity  of  schoolrooms,  that 
every  district  should  be  provided  with  the  means  of 
keeping  the  school  in  comfort.  A  simple  jacket  of 
sheet-iron  about  a  stove  in  which  a  fire  may  be  kept 
over  night  will  serve  most  one-room  school  buildings. 
A  better  arrangement  is  a  heater  in  the  basement,  where 
fuel  also  may  be  kept,  with  a  playroom  for  rainy  days. 
The  school  standardization  movement  is  accomplish- 
ing much  in  this  direction. 

Air  must  be  not  only  of  the  right  temperature,  but  Air 
reasonably  pure.  The  viciously  contaminated  air  in 
some  schoolrooms  effectively  prevents  good  work. 
Earnest  application  is  impossible  to  the  child  whose 
lungs  are  filled  with  poison.  Incapable  of  giving 
voluntary  attention  to  the  work  in  hand,  he  aUows  his 
involuntary  attention  to  be  drawn  to  any  chance  move- 
ment which  catches  his  eye.  Suggestion  and  imitation 
complete  his  fall  into  some  offense  from  which  good 
working  conditions  might  have  saved  him. 

Poor  light  is  likewise  responsible  for  some  misde-  Light 
meanors.  Poor  light  is  too  strong  or  too  dim,  direct 
sunlight  on  floor  or  work,  or  light  from  the  wrong 
direction.  A  favorite  and  most  annoying  trick  of 
children  is  to  throw  a  brilliant  reflection  of  sunhght 
about  the  room  with  a  small  mirror.  This  can  never 
occur  in  a  properly  shaded  room.  On  the  other  hand, 
dimly  lit  rooms  encourage  idleness  and  the  unnum- 
bered works  of  darkness.  Artificial  light  of  some  kind 
should  be  provided  in  every  schoolroom  for  dark  days. 

Any  number  of  disgusting  practices  are  traceable  to  Dirty  and 
dirty  and  insanitary  school  premises.  A  schoolhouse  buildings 
in  a  considerable  village  of  central  Illinois  was  so  ill- 


13© 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


Signs  of 
disorder 


The  need 
of  walks 


kept  that  the  effects  of  its  condition  upon  school  order 
might  easily  be  seen  when  school  was  not  in  session. 
The  floor  under  the  radiators  was  thick  with  accumu- 
lated dirt,  in  which  could  be  seen  deposits  of  peanut 
shells,  pencil-sharpenings,  candy-wrappers,  and  wads 
of  paper.  In  a  high  window  at  the  back  of  one  room, 
a  piece  had  been  broken  from  a  pane,  evidently  some 
time  before,  since  the  surrounding  wall  was  studded 
with  many  generations  of  paper-wads,  plainly  aimed 
at  the  opening  but  landed  wide  of  the  mark.  The 
dingy  desks  were  deeply  cut  with  initials  and  rude 
pictures.  In  the  dark,  dusty  cloakrooms  could  be 
deciphered  impudent  legends  concerning  the  teachers, 
and  insulting  statements  about  pupils.  Had  the 
schoolhouse  been  kept  clean,  had  it  been  properly 
inspected,  all  these  forms  of  bad  order  would  have 
been,  or  at  least  could  have  been,  prevented.  A  word 
here  about  the  worst  form  of  vandalism  is  apropos. 
There  are  outbuildings  on  school  premises  in  our 
country  containing  disrespectful  or  indecent  legends, 
which  have  been  contaminating  the  minds  of  children 
for  years  because  no  teacher  has  had  the  courage  to 
insist  that  the  place  be  thoroughly  cleaned  up.  Dirt 
in  any  form  is  demoralizing,  and  where  it  is  condoned 
trouble  may  be  expected  from  it  soon  or  late. 

In  many  schools  the  mud  brought  in  by  pupils  keeps 
the  floors  in  poor  condition  and  is  a  menace  to  health 
and  a  temptation  to  misbehavior.  A  shameless  parsi- 
mony deters  the  boards  of  such  schools  from  making 
the  needed  walks  about  the  school  buildings.  In 
Illinois,  a  state  justly  famous  for  the  blackness  and 
stickiness  of  its  mud,  it  is  not  at  all  uncommon  to  see 


ANALYSIS  OF  COMMON  OFFENSES         131 

country  schools  which  have  not  a  foot  of  sidewalk  on 
the  premises.  Good  concrete  walks  from  the  entrance 
of  the  school  yard  to  the  door,  and  also  to  each  out- 
house, with  scrapers  at  the  front  gate  and  others  at 
the  door,  can  be  made  at  a  very  reasonable  cost,  will 
last  for  years,  and  will  save  health,  appearances  and 
self-respect.  Mats  of  wire  and  fiber  are  also  helpful  in 
keeping  the  school  floor  in  a  sanitary  condition.^ 

A  most  disturbing  if  comparatively  innocent  offense  Aids  to 
is  the  craning  of  necks  and  straining  of  ears  when  sights  Attention 
and  sounds  from  the  outside  world  call  the  attention 
of  the  children.  Older  children  may  be  set  a  task  in 
self-control  if  the  teacher  enjoys  psychological  experi- 
ment, but  Uttle  folk  need  merely  a  more  thorough 
isolation.  Opaque  curtaining  at  windows  and  doors 
is  first  aid  to  injured  attention.  Deadened  floors  and 
walls  shut  out  noise  and  induce  an  answering  quiet 
from  the  pupils.  A  schoolhouse  near  a  railroad,  or  a 
house  in  process  of  building,  is  a  hard  place  to  keep  in 
order. 

In  closing  this  division  of  our  discussion,  it  should  be 
said  that  it  is  the  business  of  the  school  board  to  see 
that  teachers  have  a  fair  chance  to  keep  their  schools 
in  order.  They  should  provide  clean,  quiet,  comforta- 
ble quarters  for  the  school,  that  the  teachers  may 
have  no  handicap  in  the  mere  material  environment. 
Teachers  should  insist  on  such  surroundings  before 
beginning  school;  they  have  not  half  a  chance  without 
them. 

•  For  excellent  suggestions  concerning  the  physical  environment 
in  country  schools,  see  Dressier,  The  Hygiene  of  Rural  Schools, 
N.  E.  A.,  1913,  page  1103, 


132  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

Results  of  the  Physical  Condition  of  Pupils 
The  by-  The  growing  pains  of  boys  and  girls  are  many  and 

products  ,  .  t  .  .     . 

of  growth  various.  Sometimes  they  aflQict  the  pubhc  m  queer  or 
annoying  ways.  A  new  consciousness  of  himself,  a 
new  ability  to  think  independently,  a  cocky  exuberance 
over  the  acquiring  of  some  new  dignity,  has  led  many 
a  school  child  who  would  not  for  worlds  be  deliberately 
impudent,  into  the  temptation  of  "talking  back"  to 
his  teacher.  To  check  such  manifestations  wisely  is 
no  easy  task,  for  if  too  severely  reprimanded  such  a 
child  may  become  silent  and  morose,  sullenly  aggrieved 
at  an  affront  to  his  new  dignity. 

A  number  of  modes  and  stages  mark  the  advance 
of  children  from  babyhood  to  maturity,  each  v/ith  its 
characteristic  aberrations  and  its  own  trying  manner- 
isms or  even  vices.  Boys,  for  instance,  are  by  turns 
frankly  affectionate,  graciously  patronizing,  bHndly 
indifferent,  brutally  rude,  jealous,  hateful,  secretly 
admiring,  and  openly  devoted  to  the  little  girls  they 
meet  at  school.  Girls  are  given  to  fads  which  they 
pursue  with  the  most  maddening  single-mindedness. 
They  make  hairpin  braid  behind  their  geographies, 
they  keep  house  in  their  desks,  setting  tea-tables  with 
real  food  beneath  the  lid,  they  cut  paper  dolls,  make 
rose-beads,  write  romances  and  diaries,  read  Laura  Jean 
Libby,  and  draw  cartoons  of  the  teachers  during 
school  hours.  All  the  interests  of  maturer  years  appear 
in  little  during  a  school-girl's  career.  Restlessness 
and  change,  resistance  and  adventure,  are  especially 
strong  in  both  boys  and  girls  at  the  times  when 
physical  changes  are  most  rapid  and  critical.     Phys- 


ANALYSIS  OF  COMMON  OFFENSES         133 

iology  and  psychology  have  explained,  as  perfectly 
normal  manifestations,  many  things  that  were  for- 
merly regarded  as  the  grim  outcroppings  of  original 
sin. 

Chief  among  the  troubles  which  arise  from  the  Obscenity 
normal  physical  development  of  boys  and  girls  are 
those  which  are  grouped  under  the  term  obscenity. 
They  spring  from  a  perversion  of  innocent  instincts, 
and  might  be  prevented  in  all  but  degenerate  children 
by  proper  instruction,  given  preferably  at  home.  Chil- 
dren have  an  altogether  normal  and  healthy  curiosity 
concerning  the  origin  of  life  and  the  relation  of  the 
sexes;  and  the  painful  offenses  against  purity  and  good 
taste,  of  which  they  are  guilty,  are  often  but  the 
result  of  the  mistaken  policy  of  reticence  and  deception 
which  has  been  so  long  the  rule. 

In  addition  to  the  problems  that  arise  from  the  other 
natural  and  healthy  development  of  children,  there  "suhs*"^ 
are  others  that  spring  from  abnormal  or  subnormal 
conditions.  These  are  notably  inattention,  with  the 
restlessness  and  mischief  that  go  with  it,  idleness,  and 
irritability.  Cheating  is  sometimes  the  pathetic  last 
resort  of  a  child  who  is  prevented  from  making  a  good 
showing  to  parents  or  teacher,  because  of  some  physi- 
cal disability.  Deafness,  poor  sight,  adenoids,  or  simi- 
lar troubles,  make  children  appear  dull  or  indifferent. 
A  cure  of  the  physical  trouble  will  often  transform 
them  in  a  short  time  into  quick,  attentive  pupils  to 
whom  learning  is  a  happiness,  and  obedience  a  grate- 
ful impulse.  School  nurses  are  employed  in  many 
cities  to  help  in  the  rescue  of  physically  defective  chil- 
dren, while  dental  and  medical  inspection  is  becoming 


tion 


134  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

more  and  more  common  even  in  the  remoter  country 
districts.^ 
Mainutri-  Aside   from   these   organic   troubles,    thousands  of 

children  are  prevented  from  doing  good  work,  and  so 
made  subject  to  chance  suggestions  of  mischief,  because 
they  are  not  well  fed.  Malnutrition  keeps  children 
below  the  point  at  which  the  nourished  body  sends  a 
good  supply  of  blood  to  the  brain,  so  that  physical 
and  mental  development  go  on  together.  Among  the 
children  of  the  very  poor  there  is  an  actual  lack  of 
food,  but  among  the  well-to-do  the  trouble  is  usually 
with  over-eating  or  a  poor  selection  of  food.  Some 
country  children  eat  to  stupidity,  following  the  example 
of  the  men  of  their  families,  who  eat  far  more  than 
even  their  hard  manual  labor  can  justify.  Children 
who  are  fed  rich  pastry  and  pickles,  and  are  allowed 
to  drink  coffee,  ale  or  wine,  can  scarcely  be  expected 
to  do  well  physically,  or  to  respond  to  the  highest 
appeals  made  to  them.  Fortunately,  many  cities  have 
taken  up  the  matter  of  the  school  luncheon  for  serious 
study  and  experimentation.  Substantial  lunches  at 
from  one  to  five  cents  are  furnished.  The  school 
cafeteria  is  a  recognized  feature  of  the  larger  institu- 
tions. In  the  smaller  schools,  some  good  may  be 
done  by  a  series  of  very  practical  and  detailed  lessons 
on  food  and  digestion,  with  experiments  if  possible 
to  show  the  effects  of  badly  chosen  food  upon  the 
body. 

*  See  Dressier,  The  Ditty  of  the  State  in  the  Medical  Inspection 
of  Schools.     Report  of  N.  E.  A.,  19 12,  pp.  257  ff. 


ANALYSIS  OF  COMMON  OFFENSES        135 

IV.   Offenses  Due  to  Untrained  Moral  Judg- 
ment AND  Perverted  Ideals 

A  group  of  very  serious  offenses  may  be  traced  to 
popular  fallacies  concerning  moral  laws,  or  to  custom 
blindly  followed  without  reference  to  moral  law. 
Among  young  children  these  offenses  spring  usually 
from  simple  selfishness  —  a  lack  of  socialization  of 
spirit.  They  may  be  stubborn,  refusing  from  pure  "indepen- 
self-will  to  follow  directions,  or  to  give  up  a  personal 
privilege,  or  share  some  pleasant  thing.  Disobedience 
in  older  children  is  sometimes  due,  not  to  resentment 
against  the  teacher  so  much  as  to  a  mistaken  ideal  of 
maturity,  independence,  and  aristocratic  high  spirits. 
Such  children  have  perhaps  heard  a  grown  person  tell 
with  complacency  of  an  experience  in  which  he  worsted 
authority.  The  children  imbibe  the  idea  that  resist- 
ance to  law  is  the  mark  of  a  noble  and  untamable 
spirit.  Inflammable  literature,  in  which  outlawry  is 
idealized  and  villainy  made  picturesque,  is  sometimes 
responsible.  A  child  who  has  absorbed  such  ideals 
wishes  to  prove  his  mettle  by  refusing  to  be  bound 
by  the  petty  regulations  that  trammel  his  fellows.  A 
wise  teacher,  confronted  by  one  of  these  theatrical, 
self-appointed  heroes,  will  strike  at  the  root  of  the 
difficulty  by  ascertaining  the  source  of  the  pseudo- 
inspiration,  and  by  substituting  truer  ideals  for  the 
harmful  ones. 

The  children  in  many  towns  grow  up  without  having  community 
had    "a    square    deal"    ethically.    The   whole    com-  i°fl"e°" 
munity  may  be  so  poisoned  by  false  ideals,  in  so  primi- 
tive a  condition  morally,  that  the  children  commit 


136  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

really  serious  offenses  without  an  idea  that  they  are 
transgressing  any  moral  law.  An  educator,  having 
reason  to  visit  a  town  in  the  Middle  West,  went  to  see 
the  high  school  there.  It  was  the  last  day  of  the 
semester,  and  examinations  were  being  given.  The 
books  of  aU  the  students  were  piled  up  in  long  rows 
around  the  room.  The  principal  and  teachers  ex- 
plained that  the  books  had  been  taken  from  the  students 
to  prevent  cheating,  a  custom  which  had  been  followed 
for  years  in  that  community.  The  reason  for  this 
was  that  the  parents  were  of  the  firm  opinion  that 
the  only  harm  in  cheating  lay  in  the  possibility  of  being 
caught.  It  was  not  an  uncommon  thing  for  parents 
to  boast  to  their  neighbors  of  the  successful  exploit  of 
Th«  a  child  who  had  outwitted  the  teachers  on  examination 

uncivilized  «  •  «         1 

parent  day.     A  tradition  had  grown  up  in  that  town  which 

not  only  excused,  but  even  fixed  upon  the  children 
the  habit  of  cheating.  In  a  similar  way,  other  evils 
have  become  traditional  in  various  communities,  which 
explains  the  fruitlessness  of  the  efforts  of  conscientious 
teachers  to  effect  a  change  for  the  better.  Not  the 
children  in  the  school,  but  the  parents  in  the  homes, 
need  education  primarily.  With  the  extension  of 
school  privileges  to  grown  people,  and  the  growing 
influence  of  schoolmen  and  schoolwomen  in  our  coun- 
try, and  with  the  awakening  of  the  clergy  to  the  need 
for  specific  moral  instruction,  we  may  hope  that  the 
ideals  of  the  people  may  be  raised  from  such  a  standard 
as  is  indicated  in  the  illustration  just  given.  One  point 
can  not  be  over-emphasized:  that  there  is  a  close  and 
vital  connection  between  disorder  and  misconduct, 
and  the  ethical  ideals  of  all  the  people  from  whom 


ANALYSIS  OF  COMMON  OFFENSES         137 

pupils  learn  their  code  of  life.  Conduct  works  out  from 
within,  truly  and  inevitably.  It  is  worse  than  useless 
to  try  to  control  school  behavior  and  secure  good 
school  conduct,  leaving  all  untouched  the  deep  wells 
from  which  conduct  springs. 

Fighting 

Fighting,  not  in  itself  an  unmixed  evil,  springs  from  xhe 
many  causes,  most  of  which  may  be  grouped  under  ^V^^l 
the  general  head  of  inadequate  ideals.  They  are  in- 
adequate and  outworn,  the  tenacious  standards  of  a 
time  long  past,  rather  than  perverted  ideals.  The 
most  primitive  and  ineradicable  of  them  is  the  world- 
old  admiration  for  brute  force,  and  of  the  man  or  boy 
who  can  establish  his  position  by  recourse  to  it.  A 
new  boy  in  a  school  is  expected  to  prove  his  right  to  a 
friendly  reception  by  at  least  one  well-fought  battle, 
usually  with  the  boss  of  the  "gang."  There  are  many 
other  ways  in  which  a  boy  may  prove  his  right  to  the 
respect  of  other  boys,  but  with  an  almost  unfailing 
reversion  to  primitive  standards,  boys  everywhere 
demand  a  fight.  The  challenged  respond  to  the 
condition  without  great  regret,  for  combativeness  is  of 
the  spirit  of  man  from  the  beginning.  For  this  reason 
a  "string"  of  fights  often  accompanies  the  entrance  of 
a  new  boy  into  a  school. 

Second  among  the  ideals  which  foster  fighting  is  a  The 
cheap  notion  of  democracy  which  resents  any  and  ^^gn^^nt 
every  inequality.     Boys  will  often  eagerly  cooperate 
in  forcing  a  fight  upon  another  boy  whose  only  offense 
is  some  real  or  fancied  superiority.     Smart  clothes,  the 
attendance  of  servants,  too  brilliant  recitations  in  class, 


138 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


The 

fight  for 
excitement 


The  fight 
of  gang 
loyalty 


an  evident  preference  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  or  of 
the  girls  in  the  school,  or  an  unfortunate  reference  to 
experiences  or  possessions  out  of  the  reach  of  his 
schoolmates,  has  brought  upon  many  a  peace-loving 
boy  the  vengeance  of  the  commoner.  Most  people 
resent  superiority  keenly,  and  children  show  this  resent- 
ment frankly  where  their  elders  dissemble  rather  than 
acknowledge  their  humiHating  position. 

Fighting  is  not  quite  the  fundamental  thing  that 
its  prevalence  would  lead  one  to  beheve.  Boys  Hke 
intense  action,  and  in  the  absence  of  intense  action  of 
a  better  sort  they  turn  to  the  intensiveness  of  combat. 
The  personal  element  gives  zest;  the  possibility  of 
serious  consequences  turns  the  sport  into  adventure. 
The  taste  for  fighting  grows,  like  any  other  bad  habit; 
and  when  other  ways  of  securing  excitement  fail, 
boys  learn  to  produce  a  fight  by  some  kind  of  artificial 
stimulation,  usually  persistent  taunting.  Children  can 
be  maddeningly  insulting,  and  with  any  convenient 
circumstance  as  a  basis,  will  drive  any  self-respecting 
comrade  to  blows  in  a  short  time.  Fights  of  this  sort 
can  be  effectively  cured  only  by  furnishing  a  new 
interest  of  greater  excitement  than  the  fight.  In  other 
words,  fighting  must  be  crowded  out  by  better  amuse- 
ments. 

There  is  also  the  gang-fight,  growing  out  of  that 
intense  loyalty  to  "our  crowd"  which  seems  to  be  part 
of  a  city  boy's  religion.  This  is  a  survival  of  the  old 
loyalty  of  the  knight  for  his  own  particular  band  of 
robbers.  It  is  one  with  that  spirit  which  supports 
battle-ships  and  standing  armies,  Krupp  guns  and  jin- 
goism, in  these  days  when  the  arts  of  peace  are,  theoreti- 


ANALYSIS  OF  COMMON  OFFENSES         139 

cally,  appraised  far  above  the  arts  of  war.  Even  among 
very  good  and  advanced  people,  the  idea  of  a  thorough 
socialization  makes  its  way  very  slowly.  Popular 
standards  make  a  virtue  out  of  devotion  to  the  interests 
of  one's  own  particular  unit,  even  when  those  interests 
clash  with  justice  to  the  people  of  other  units.  This 
narrow,  selfish  preference  for  one's  own,  coupled  with 
the  prejudice  against  outsiders  which  is  its  natural 
corollary,  ought  to  be  regarded  as  a  vicious  thing,  and 
in  a  more  enUghtened  age  will  be  classed  with  the 
selfishness  of  the  man  who  would  restrict  the  gifts  of 
life  to  his  own  family.  As  poUtical  parties  bend  their 
energies  toward  keeping  their  political  enemies  out  of 
office,  so  boys,  organized  in  gangs,  develop  a  shrewd 
skill  in  outwitting  other  gangs,  and  make  a  virtue  of 
every  deed  of  violence  committed  in  the  name  of  the 
gang.  General,  fights  are  usually  due  to  the  gang 
organization  in  some  form,  and  the  only  real  cure  lies 
in  breaking  up  the  gang  by  substituting  other  interests 
for  the  regular  gang  activities. 

Still  another  cause  of  fighting  is  the  prominence  imitative 
given  to  prize-fights  in  the  newspapers  and  in  popular  * 
conversation.  When  a  prize-fighter  becomes  a  national 
hero,  the  school  bully  becomes  a  local  one.  Neverthe- 
less, his  pugnacity  is  modified  by  restrictions,  for 
schoolboys  learn  to  referee  and  conduct  fights  in  very 
professional  form.  This  is  not  altogether  bad;  indeed, 
if  fighting  is  as  inevitable  as  some  would  have  us 
believe,  it  is  altogether  good.  It  introduces  a  code 
of  fairness,  of  submission  to  established  rules,  that 
removes  these  contests  from  the  realm  of  the  purely 
brutal.     If  boys  will  fight,  it  is  good  for  them  to  fight 


I40 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


'Tattling' 


An 

outworn 

fallacy 


under  regulations  that  instil  some  ideals  of  fair  play. 
Where  characteristics  copied  from  prize-fights  are  very 
prominent,  these  combats  will  usually  be  found  to  spring 
from  imitation  of  what  the  boys  consider  the  most 
manly  sport.  Teachers  in  boys'  schools  have  suc- 
ceeded in  controlling  fighting  almost  entirely  by  sub- 
stituting boxing  contests  under  supervision;  but  this 
method  is  scarcely  practicable  in  most  public  schools. 

Shielding  Evil-Doers 

An  offense  which  many  teachers  condone  or  justify 
is  the  shielding  of  schoolmates  who  have  done  wrong, 
through  the  same  sense  of  party-loyalty  which  upholds 
the  gang.  In  the  minds  of  many  children,  the  school 
and  its  pupils  are  two  opposing  forces,  each  trying  to 
outwit  the  other.  They  feel  that  loyalty  to  their  party 
includes  the  shielding  of  any  member  who  has  trans- 
gressed the  law,  no  matter  how  seriously.  The  atti- 
tude of  teachers  and  parents  who  dilate  upon  the  crime 
of  "tattling"  supports  the  idea.  Now  it  is  true  that 
tale-bearing  is  an  ugly  habit,  and  that  it  sometimes 
grows,  if  not  checked,  until  aU  sorts  of  petty  personal 
grievances  are  carried  to  an  overburdened  teacher  for 
adjustment.  Small  children,  if  championed  in  their 
little  differences,  do  not  learn  the  self-reliance  which 
comes  through  a  normal  series  of  self-defensive  con- 
tests. But  petty  tale-bearing  and  the  betrayal  of 
wrong-doing  are  as  different  as  helpfulness  between 
pupils  who  are  mastering  a  new  task,  and  helpfulness 
between  the  same  pupils  when  the  task  is  supposed  to 
be  mastered  and  a  test  is  being  given.  Helpfulness  in 
one  case  is  altruism,  in  the  other  dishonesty.     The 


ANALYSIS  OF  COMMON  OFFENSES         141 

inquiry  by  the  teacher,  who  has  a  right  to  know  the 
facts,  makes  the  diflference  in  both  cases.  A  consistent 
allegiance  to  social  ideals  and  an  adequate  conception 
of  the  school  as  a  social  unit,  demand  that  all  work 
together  for  the  good  of  all.  Each  citizen  in  this  little 
country  should  be  a  law-enforcer.  When  one  or  several 
citizens  fail,  it  is  the  duty  of  others,  if  called  upon,  to 
help  bring  them  to  justice  and  reformation.  The  child 
who  protects  another  child  who  is  in  the  wrong  is  an 
accessory  to  that  wrong,  and  an  enemy  to  the  best 
interests  of  the  school. 

It  goes  without  saying  that  teachers  should  be  tact-  Tact 
ful  in  acting  upon  this  principle.  The  older  ideal, 
of  loyalty  to  individuals  which  transcends  the  obliga- 
tion to  the  body  social,  is  still  so  generally  held,  even 
by  thoughtful  people,  that  one  finds  the  newer  loyalty 
"more  honored  in  the  breach  than  in  th'  observance." 
It  is  almost  always  possible  to  find  out  what  is  to  be 
known  without  direct  questioning,  one  of  the  notable 
axioms  of  teachers  being  that  children  will  "tell  on 
themselves"  if  given  a  fair  chance.  If  an  inquisition 
becomes  advisable,  however,  no  teacher  should  hesitate 
because  of  conscientious  scruples  concerning  the  child's 
right  to  shield  a  friend.^ 

Lying 

Dr.  Hall  ^  differentiates  seven  kinds  of  lying  to  which 
children  are  prone.  Some  are  innocent  expressions 
of  the  spirit  of  play,  or  over-conscientious  scrupling; 

1  Tompkins,  Philosophy  of  Teaching,  pp.  331-333. 
*  G.  Stanley  Hall,  "  Children's  Lies,"  The  Pedagogical  Seminary, 
vol.  i,  pp.  211-218. 


142 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


The  con- 
scientious 
lie 


The 

romantic 

Ue 


The 

partisan 
Ue 


The 

self -saving 

lie 


others  are  cowardly  or  vicious  subterfuges  leading  to 
serious  defects  in  character.  The  classification  is  as 
follows: 

1.  Pseudophobic  lies,  or  statements  which  children 
morbidly  fear  and  imagine  are  lies.  This  fear  leads  to 
systematized  palliatives,  over-fine  word-splitting,  and 
reluctance  to  give  definite  answers  to  questions.  Such 
children  fear  they  may  unwittingly  lie,  and  suffer  terrible 
consequences,  either  immediately  or  in  a  future  life. 

2.  Heroic  hes,  justified  and  even  acclaimed  as  a 
laudable  sacrifice  of  mere  personal  honor  to  another's 
gain.  Such  lying,  especially  when  used  to  protect 
schoolmates,  often  grows  out  of  ideals  formed  by  hear- 
ing stories  of  justified  Hes.  Devotion  to  friends  has  a 
more  concrete  and  emotional  appeal  to  the  childish 
heart  and  mind  than  devotion  to  truth,  "truth"  being 
an  abstraction  often  beyond  their  comprehension. 

3.  Lies  which  express  disHke.  ''Truth  for  friends 
and  lies  for  enemies"  is  a  defensible  doctrine  for  chil- 
dren until  a  more  impersonal  ideal  has  been  taught 
them.  And  grown  people  often  support  them  in  the 
childish  idea  that,  while  honorable  treatment  is  due  to 
friends,  "all's  fair  in  war." 

4.  Selfish  Hes.  These  are  the  Hes  of  denial  for  the 
sake  of  protection,  and  those  told  to  gain  a  point. 
They  are  the  most  common  and  the  most  dangerous 
of  the  Hes  met  with  in  schools.  They  are  fostered  by 
too  much  emphasis  on  honors  and  marks,  by  excessive 
emulation,  by  undue  severity  in  punishment,  by  care- 
lessness in  accepting  excuses  without  investigation. 
But  no  care  of  conditions  will  ever  entirely  eliminate 
the  opportunities  for  telHng  them,  nor  will  Httle  chil- 


ANALYSIS  OF  COMMON  OFFENSES         143 

dren  cease  to  try  to  protect  themselves  by  this  instinc- 
tive means.  It  is  a  fault  that  must  be  fought  "by 
appeals  to  honor,  self-respect,  self-control.  Hard  and 
even  hated  tasks,  and  rugged  moral,  mental,  and 
physical  regimen  should  supplement  those  modern 
methods  which  make  education  a  sort  of  self-indulgence 
of  natural  interests." 

5.  Lies  born  of  the  imagination  and  play-instinct.  The  "lie" 
These  spring  from  the  pleasure  of  self-deception  and  of 
imposing  on  others  the  shadowy  fancies  of  an  ideahz- 

ing  temperament.  In  themselves  they  are  innocent, 
and  should  not  be  stopped;  but  children  need  help  in 
distinguishing  between  fact  and  fancy,  which  are  often 
strangely  confused  in  their  active  but  not  analytical 
minds.  The  child  who  declares  that  he  saw  a  horse 
with  five  feet  walking  across  the  lake,  drawing  a  car- 
riage full  of  mice  as  big  as  collies,  needs  some  pains- 
taking explanation  of  his  own  mental  processes;  but 
for  the  sake  of  our  future  literature  he  should  not  be 
punished  for  lying.  He  may  yet  redeem  us  from  the 
too-true  charge  of  literal-mindedness. 

6.  Pseudomania,  or  the  love  of  lying  for  the  sake  of  The 

s  cnsfttioiifll 

the  impression  produced,  is  a  serious  moral  disease,  ue 
It  usually  shows  itself  in  boys  in  a  desire  to  humbug  or 
trick  others,  and  in  girls  in  a  morbid  kind  of  afifectation, 
which  seeks  constant  attention.  Such  girls  make  up 
marvelous  stories  of  the  wealth,  fame,  and  ancestry 
of  their  families,  for  the  sake  of  the  distinction  it  gives 
them  in  the  eyes  of  their  schoolmates.  Boys  Ue  for 
the  pure  fun  of  trying  the  credulity  of  others,  of  finding 
out  how  much  they  can  make  them  believe.  After  a 
time  this  love  of  lying  for  its  effect  becomes  a  habit  of 


144  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

l)dng,  without  regard  to  effect.  The  victim  can  not 
tell  the  truth,  even  when  it  is  to  his  advantage  to  do  so. 
"These  cases  demand  the  most  prompt  and  drastic 
treatment.  If  the  withdrawal  of  attention  and  sym- 
pathy and  belief  in  the  earlier  manifestations,  and  if 
instruction  and  stern  reprimand  are  not  enough," 
says  Dr.  Hall,  "there  is  still  virtue  in  the  rod,  which 
should  not  be  spared,  and,  if  this  should  fail,  then  the 
doctor  should  be  called." 
The  7.   Palliative  lies,  which  are  at  least  partially  excused 

cowfljdlv 

lie  by  mental  reservations  or  muttered  reversing  formulae; 

the  pantomimic  lie,  and  the  Ue  of  silent  assent.  "I 
didn't  do  it,  it  was  my  hand,"  is  a  common  inward 
excuse  for  a  lying  denial. 

All  of  these  varieties  of  lies  except  the  first  and  fifth 
should  be  treated  as  serious  moral  oflfenses,  which  give 
rise  to  vices  in  maturer  years  if  not  checked  in  youth. 
A  fine  and  high  and  uncompromising  ideal  of  truth  can 
be  built  up  by  attacking  the  evil  forcibly  whenever  it 
shows  itself.  But  the  teacher  needs  to  be  very  sure  of 
understanding  the  motive  and  nature  of  the  lie  before 
attempting  to  correct  it,  lest  injustice,  or  the  applica- 
tion of  ineffective  blundering  remedies  result. 

Stealing 

Stealing  is  another  sin  whose  prevention  and  cure 
lie  in  vigorous  instruction,  in  the  inculcation  and  drilling 
of  strong  prejudices.  Among  schoolchildren  it  seems 
to  be  due  to  a  variety  of  motives,  all  of  which  would 
yield  to  a  standard  of  absolute  honesty  if  that  standard 
were  taught  early  enough  and  sufficiently  emphasized. 
Children  steal  because  of 


ANALYSIS  OF  COMMON  OFFENSES         145 

1.  The  instinct  of  acquisitiveness,  which,  unchecked, 
leads  a  child  to  take  what  attracts  his  attention  or 
what  he  can  use. 

2.  The  desire  to  have  something  to  give  away. 
Children  who  can  not  get  such  gifts  at  home  frequently 
steal  apples,  flowers,  or  candy  to  give  to  the  teacher  or 
to  an  adored  classmate. 

3.  A  desire  to  show  superior  cleverness.     A  boy  in  stealing 
a  California  school,  for  instance,  boasted  that  he  could    **' 
steal  an  orange  a  day  from  a  carefully  guarded  tree,  for 

two  weeks.  He  had  formed  a  friendship  for  the  bull- 
dog which  lived  at  that  home,  and  accomplished  the 
feat,  to  the  great  admiration  of  his  schoolmates,  by 
feeding  him  a  piece  of  meat  while  the  family  were  at 
luncheon.  He  had  almost  made  good  his  boast  when 
another  boy  betrayed  him  unintentionally  in  a  school 
theme,  which  set  an  investigation  on  foot.  The  would- 
be  thief  belonged  to  a  well-to-do  family,  and  had  no 
incentive  for  such  acts  but  the  craving  for  admiration 
and  notoriety.  Systematic  stealing  from  lockers  and 
lunch-boxes,  which  in  some  schools  defies  detection 
for  a  long  time,  is  probably  partly  because  of  the  fun 
connected  with  puzzling  and  bafl&ing  the  authorities 
for  so  long  a  time. 

4.  The  demands  of  others.  Occasionally  a  case  of 
dehberate  instruction  of  a  child  in  stealing,  by  parents 
or  others,  is  unearthed. 

5.  Convenience.  Pencils,  erasers,  rulers,  papers, 
or  textbooks  are  taken  from  desks  by  pupils  who 
need  these  articles,  and  have  no  scruples  about 
supplying  themselves  from  whatever  stores  may  be 
at  hand. 


146 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


Direct,  rationalized,  and  at  the  same  time  emotion- 
alized teaching,  combined  with  punishment  of  actual 
offenses,  will  cure  stealing  in  most  cases,  provided  the 
pupil  is  young  enough.  The  evil  is  one  of  the  long  Hst 
to  be  attributed  to  neglected  home  traim'ng. 

Cheating  Cheating  is  also  to  be  attributed  to  an  untrained 

moral  judgment.  The  cause  is  simply  a  neglect  of  the 
teaching  of  prejudices  against  unfair  means  of  gaining 
one's  ends  —  in  the  absence  of  which,  of  course,  any 
means  seems  good.  The  moral  judgment  which  should 
make  a  child  recoil  with  repugnance  from  dishonesty 
is  not  a  judgment  at  all,  strictly  speaking,  but  an 
habitual  reaction,  as  mechanical  as  writing  or  eating. 
Its  rationalization  may  come  early  or  late;  the  child 
is  safe  if  only  the  prejudice  be  well  fixed.  The  boy  or 
girl  who  cheats  has  a  poor  sense  of  relative  values;  he 
has  been  taught  to  overestimate  a  grade,  or  to  under- 
estimate the  imperative  necessity  of  honesty. 

Gambling  Various  devices  by  which  something  may  be  had  for 

nothing  develop  in  children  a  taste  for  gaming,  and 
should  be  prohibited  as  subversive  of  morals.  Play- 
ing marbles  for  keeps  is  essential  gambling,  as  is  penny- 
matching  and  pencil-tossing.  The  grab-baskets  and 
other  petty  lotteries  which  often  flourish  in  the  vicinity 
of  schools  show  how  quickly  children  respond  to  the 
lure  of  gaming.  The  wonder  of  so  great  a  gain  as  is 
possible  with  so  little  invested  seems  to  appeal  irresist- 
ibly to  childish  imaginations.  The  sense  of  fair  com- 
pensation, which  is  one  of  the  most  intricate  and 
diflScult  to  develop  of  all  our  acquired  feelings,  is 
ahnost  entirely  wanting  in  children.  It  is  foolish  to 
expect  that  little  folk  will  refrain  from  gaming  through 


ANALYSIS  OF  COMMON  OFFENSES         147 

any  deliberate  judgment  based ,  on  motives  of  honesty, 
although  strong  prejudices  may  be  early  developed,  and 
make  the  strongest  defense  against  the  subtle  tempta- 
tion to  take  a  chance.  The  only  safeguard  against 
gambling  devices  is  their  absolute  prohibition.  For- 
tunately, the  laws  in  most  states  are  sufficiently  severe 
to  be  an  effective  ally  of  teachers  and  school  boards, 
if  enforced;  and  public  opinion,  more  sensitive  in  this 
matter  than  in  many  others,  will  usually  support  a 
crusade  against  schemes  calculated  to  develop  a  love 
for  gaming  among  children. 

V.   Offenses  of  Sensationalism 

"All  the  world's  a  stage"  to  children  who  enjoy  "Showing 
being  in  the  limelight.  No  trammeling  sense  of 
propriety  limits  the  field  of  their  histrionics.  Unless 
carefully  trained  in  the  prejudices  that  make  people 
well-bred,  children  carry  their  theatricals  to  church, 
to  concerts,  and  to  lectures,  and  parade  them  when 
shopping,  walking,  and  riding.  They  keep  the  choicest 
bits  of  "business,"  however,  for  school,  where  they 
have  an  appreciative  audience  of  themselves.  The 
mischief  caused  by  childish  vanity  is  not  so  great  in 
volume,  perhaps,  as  that  due  to  the  causes  already 
mentioned;  but  the  offenses  are  more  sensational  in 
character,  and  their  power  to  break  up  school  order 
and  belittle  authority  is  immense.  They  spring  from 
a  primeval  sort  of  vanity,  which  seeks  to  attract  atten- 
tion to  its  possessor  by  any  means  at  almost  any  cost. 
Under  a  strong  school  government  this  vanity  is  held 
in  check  by  the  fear  of  consequences,  and  by  the  force 
of  public  opinion,  which  pays  its  meed  of  reverence  to 


I4S 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


Bad  odors 


Animals  in 
the  school- 
room 


Various 
misdeeds 


efficiency.  But  where  the  authority  of  the  teacher  is 
not  yet  estabUshed  or  has  broken  down,  the  theatrical 
instincts  of  youth  assert  themselves  strongly,  and  the 
result  is  usually  a  series  of  those  ingenious  imperti- 
nences which  become  the  stock-in-trade  of  half -amused 
and  wholly-shocked  scandal-mongers. 

Among  the  more  serious  offenses  due  to  a  desire  to 
attract  attention  and  comment,  is  that  of  introducing 
an  intolerable  odor  into  the  schoolroom.  Cut  onions 
are  mild  offenders;  assafoetida,  sulphur  compounds, 
and  Limburger  cheese,  especially  when  concealed  in 
the  coils  of  radiators,  may  easily  break  up  a  school 
session.  Snuff  or  red  pepper  is  sometimes  scattered 
on  schoolroom  floors,  producing  uncontrollable  sneezing. 

Most  colleges  cherish  a  legend  of  some  class  which 
proved  its  right  to  fame  by  hoisting  a  cow  to  the  belfry, 
or  installing  a  flock  of  sheep  in  a  favored  classroom. 
Boys  and  girls,  hearing  these  tales  of  great  deeds, 
foUow  them  in  a  modest  way,  hoping  to  win  at  least 
passing  mention.  They  put  a  mouse  or  a  snake  into 
the  teacher's  desk,  or  conceal  in  their  coats  kittens  or 
puppies,  later  to  be  turned  adrift  upon  a  not  indif- 
ferent world.  Children  have  been  known  to  carry 
bees,  mice,  bats,  and  angleworms  into  the  room  in 
boxes,  which  were  afterward  opened,  liberating  very 
effective  disturbers  of  the  peace. 

Other  misdeeds  which  bring  the  perpetrator  to  the 
admiring  notice  of  his  fellows  are  the  marking  of  the 
backs  of  coats  with  chalked  legends,  or  pinning  paper 
labels  there.  Boys  of  the  Treasure  Island  age  proudly 
exhibit  arms  tatooed  with  ink-pricks^  or  transfer  pic- 

^  These  have  been  known  to  produce  very  serious  blood-poisoning. 


ANALYSIS  OF  COMMON  OFFENSES        149 

tures.  Shaking  the  building  by  quick  pressures  of  the 
feet  is  a  traditional  way  of  creating  a  sensation  by 
puzzling  the  teacher,  whose  efforts  to  discover  the 
offender  make  a  huge  joke.  Another  method  of  annoy- 
ing a  teacher  and  disturbing  a  schoolroom  lies  in 
sprinkling  the  floor  with  match-heads,  which  may  be 
dropped  from  a  slit  in  a  coat-pocket  in  such  a  way  as 
to  escape  the  sharpest  surveillance.  The  subsequent 
popping  and  snapping  can  not  be  blamed  upon  the 
students  who  step  upon  the  match-heads,  who  may 
not  be  the  same  ones  who  dropped  them.  Altogether 
the  offense  is  one  in  which  offenders  are  hard  to  find 
and  punish. 

A  favorite  trick  in  one  school  was  the  throwing  of  Misdirected 
handfuls  of  fine  shot  to  the  ceiHng  when  the  teacher's 
back  was  turned.  By  the  time  the  shot  had  struck 
the  ceiling  and  pattered  down  briskly  all  over  the  room, 
the  culprit  was  innocently  at  work,  or  looking  as  sur- 
prised as  his  neighbors.  In  the  same  school,  one  ingeni- 
ous boy  dared  to  appropriate  the  hat,  muffler,  overcoat, 
and  arctics  of  a  visitor,  and  use  them  to  dress  up  a  bass 
viol  that  stood  in  the  principal's  office.  At  the  close 
of  a  study  period,  when  the  rows  of  students  in  the 
assembly  room  passed  back  to  the  classroom  doors, 
the  ends  of  the  aisles  were  found  to  be  blocked  by  a 
rope,  which  passed  from  desk  to  desk  at  a  height  of 
about  two  feet,  across  the  rear  of  the  room.  All  these 
pranks  were  invented  for  the  sake  of  the  admiring 
comments  of  loafers  on  the  street  or  parents  at 
home,  as  well  as  for  the  more  immediate  audience  of 
schoolmates.  Many  grown  people  utterly  fail,  by  the 
half-hearted  deprecation  they  affect,  to  conceal  their 


appearances 


ISO  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

admiration  for  such  undignified  conduct,  such  a  travesty 
on  public  education.  The  instances  recorded  occurred 
at  a  time  of  change  of  administration,  when  a  shift 
in  control  aroused  resentment  and  put  the  school 
system  much  in  the  public  eye.  In  ordinary  times  of 
•sustained  authority  they  could  not  have  happened. 
Misleading  An  especially  blameworthy  offense  is  the  dehberate 
effort  to  make  the  authority  of  a  teacher  seem  ridicu- 
lous, and  his  efforts  to  keep  order  puerile,  by  assuming 
an  appearance  of  indifference  or  disorder,  while  care- 
fully refraining  from  the  letter  of  disobedience.  Some 
children  dehght  in  gazing  absently  through  a  window, 
or  staring  at  the  ceiling;  and,  when  their  teacher 
thinks  to  catch  them  napping  by  calling  on  them 
suddenly,  rattle  off  answers  with  a  disconcerting 
promptness  and  accuracy.  The  joke  is  on  the  teacher, 
who  does  very  ill  to  leave  it  there.  A  teacher  should 
demand  not  only  attention,  but  every  appearance  of 
attention;  and  the  appearance  of  bad  order  is  in  itself 
an  offense,  to  be  dealt  with  severely.  A  teacher  who 
had  been  much  annoyed  by  a  species  of  small  cata- 
pult, with  which  boys  shot  paper  wads  about  the 
room,  seemed  finally  to  have  captured  or  banished 
aU  the  machines,  and  to  have  restored  perfect  order. 
While  still  sensitive  to  any  sign  of  their  use,  however, 
she  thought,  on  suddenly  turning,  that  she  saw  one  boy 
lower  his  arms  hastily  and  sHp  something  into  his  desk. 
She  said  nothing,  but  soon  afterward  turned  quickly 
again,  when  the  performance  was  repeated.  She  went 
to  the  boy's  desk  and  raised  the  Hd.  There  was  no 
slingshot  there.  A  questioning  and  search  failed  to 
reveal  any,  whereupon  the  grinning  boy  confessed  that 


ANALYSIS  OF  COMMON  OFFENSES        151 

he  had  made  the  motions  purposely  "to  fool  the 
teacher."  The  teacher,  however,  being  no  fool,  stood 
the  boy  up  in  the  corner  for  the  afternoon,  explaining 
that  his  offense  added  l3dng  to  inattention,  and  was 
therefore  worse  than  the  use  of  a  real  slingshot. 

VI.  Offenses  of  Imitation 

Community  and  home  are  mirrored  pretty  accurately  Environ- 
in  the  problems  of  public  school  teachers.  Any  num-  ™^^* 
ber  of  the  alarming  or  annoying  misdeeds  of  pupils 
are  sheer  and  simple  imitations  of  what  the  grown 
people  whom  the  children  know,  do  or  say  they  do. 
These  offenses  vary  from  gum-chewing,  a  comparatively 
innocuous  but  incomparably  annoying  American  cus- 
tom, to  very  serious  misdemeanors  that  often  end  in 
the  courts.  Their  importance  can  scarcely  be  over- 
estimated. The  majority  of  the  acts  of  all  human 
beings  are  imitative  until  they  become  habitual,  while 
habits  themselves  are  but  the  results  of  successive 
imitations.  If  this  be  true  of  mature,  thinking  people, 
it  is  infinitely  more  true  of  children,  with  whom  sugges- 
tion is  more  potent  owing  to  the  absence  of  established 
habitual  response.  The  list  of  school  offenses  growing 
out  of  imitation  is  a  long  one,  and  strongly  suggests 
the  unity  of  school  Ufe  with  the  whole  life  of  the  world, 
and  the  interest  of  teachers  and  parents  in  every 
phase  of  social  reform.  The  following  enumeration 
includes  only  the  more  important  and  general  mis- 
demeanors. 

Children  who  hear  impertinent  language  will  be  impudence 
impertinent.    They  have  a  positive  genius  for  remem-  defiance 
bering,    reproducing,    extending,    and    adorning    the 


152  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

sharp  and  disrespectful  things  they  hear.  Parents  who 
quarrel,  or  taunt  each  other,  may  not  receive  similar 
treatment  from  their  children,  but  some  other  child, 
or  a  teacher,  or  a  helpless  cripple  on  the  street,  will 
reap  the  harvest  of  sharp  words.  When  children  are 
impudent,  the  teacher  may  look  for  the  cause  in  a  quar- 
relsome home  life,  in  the  influence  of  a  virago  in  the 
child's  ndghborhood,  in  the  instigation  of  a  mischief- 
maker  who  suggests  the  "smart"  attitude  to  a  self- 
conscious  aspirant  after  notoriety,  or  in  the  example 
of  a  strong,  vigorous  leader  among  the  children.  The 
man  who  boasts  of  his  "independence"  toward  his 
employer,  or  who  tells  his  admiring  children  how  he 
defied  the  park  policeman  who  ordered  him  off  the  grass, 
is  planting  the  seeds  of  disrespect  in  those  fertile  little 
minds.  Teachers  may  profitably  enlarge  upon  this 
subject  at  meetings  of  Parents'  and  Mothers'  Clubs. 
Lawlessness  A  Step  further  than  impertinence  lies  lawlessness, 
which  is  the  expression  of  the  same  spirit  in  deeds. 
Children  can  not  be  expected  to  submit  to  regulations, 
when  the  grown  people  from  whom  they  learn  their 
code  of  Ufe,  so  lightly  defy  the  law  of  the  laad.  Chil- 
dren know  that  their  parents  exceed  the  speed  limit 
when  motoring,  smuggle  goods  into  the  country,  kill 
game  out  of  season,  send  letters  rolled  in  newspapers 
to  avoid  paying  first-class  postage,  and  tell  lies  about 
ages  when  paying  fares.  The  spirit  that  prompts 
their  elders  to  evade  the  law  that  should  be  supported, 
and  sets  up  personal  advantage  or  a  conviction  that 
the  law  is  a  mistaken  one,  as  a  legitimate  reason  for 
disobeying  it,  is  easily  and  freely  imbibed  by  children, 
and  results  in  untold  trouble  in  the  schools.     Lawless- 


ANALYSIS  OF  COMMON  OFFENSES         153 

ness  is  said  to  be  growing  in  this  country.  The  schools 
must  stand  as  a  unit  to  combat  the  tendency,  and  to 
teach  in  a  positive  way  the  necessity  and  righteousness  unreliable 
of  law.  Teachers  themselves  are  sometimes  guilty  of  teachers 
the  spirit  of  disrespect  for  law.  In  a  certain  school, 
for  instance,  the  seventh  grade  teacher  actively  opposed 
the  order  of  the  principal  that  all  classes  should  march 
in  and  out  in  lines,  and  to  music.  She  was  one  of  the 
spontaneity  fiends  who  object  to  artificial  order  because 
it  is  not  a  natural,  instinctive,  childlike  thing.  She 
told  her  pupils  that  she  did  not  agree  with  the  principal, 
and  when  he  was  not  there  to  see,  she  allowed  them 
to  hop  and  skip  after  their  own  spontaneous  promptings. 
She  was  popular  with  the  children,  and  made  the  com- 
mon mistake  of  overestimating  the  strength  of  her 
personal  appeal  to  them.  Once,  when  she  had  gone 
away  on  an  errand,  leaving  her  classes  quietly  study- 
ing, she  returned  to  find  a  half-dozen  boys  and  girls 
standing  on  their  desks.  An  ingenious  leader  had 
dared  them,  and  they  had  responded. 

"But  I  ought  to  be  able  to  trust  you,"  said  the 
seventh  grade  teacher.  "Can't  you  be  trusted  when 
I'm  away,  just  as  much  as  when  I'm  here?" 

There  was  a  moment's  pause,  while  the  children  sat 
in  shamed  silence.  Then  the  schoolroom  Nemesis 
spoke  loudly  and  accusingly: 

"Mr.  Lane  can't  trust  you  to  make  us  march  out 
when  he's  not  here." 

Allied  to  the  lack  of  respect  which  shows  itself  in  Ridicule 
defiant  words  and  deeds,  is  the  lack  of  respect  which 
shows  itself  in  ridicule.     Americans  may  well  be  proud 
of  the  keen,  broad-gauge  humor  and  the  incisive  wit 


154  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

which  characterize  daily  intercourse  in  this  country. 
There  is  a  quality  of  superfluousness  in  it,  of  over- 
flowing spirits,  of  fun  that  overleaps  all  temperate 
bounds,  an  exuberance  of  laughter  for  its  own  sake. 
American  humor  is  as  wasteful  of  itself  as  American 
farming.  It  lacks  delicacy,  finish,  and  reserve;  it 
glories  in  an  audacity  which  is  refreshing  or  shocking, 
according  to  one's  point  of  view.  It  is  the  audacity 
of  American  humor,  passing  too  often  into  irreverence, 
which  distinguishes  it  from  the  humor  of  older  coun- 
tries, which  seems  therefore  tame  and  pointless  to 
Irreverence  Americans.  It  is  the  irreverent  fun  of  Americans 
which  becomes  a  social  menace.  It  is  the  habit  of 
seeing  fun  in  things  which  should  command  only 
respect,  love,  gratitude,  or  horror  and  fear.  The 
deference  due  to  age,  to  position,  to  honorable  service, 
to  the  self-respect  of  the  poor,  alike  yield  to  the  uni- 
versal love  of  a  joke.  A  mistaken  sense  of  the  ludicrous 
turns  even  the  misfortunes  of  deformity  or  imbeciUty 
into  a  source  of  laughter.  This  is  all  wrong.  How- 
ever, it  is  a  condition  so  generally  prevalent  that 
children  early  fall  into  a  habit  of  easy  ridicule  unless 
they  are  guarded  against  it.  "Do  you  know,  I  can 
always  see  a  funny  side  to  everything,"  is  a  common 
boast,  given  with  great  complacency.  The  ridicule 
of  children  falls  upon  the  weak  and  helpless,  upon 
those  who  differ  from  them  in  clothes  and  customs,  and 
upon  teacher,  pupils,  the  school  regimen  in  general. 
They  copy  the  habit  from  their  elders,  from  moving- 
pictures  and  vaudeville  shows,  and  especially  from  that 
arch-enemy  of  all  that  is  desirable,  the  "funny  sheet" 
of  the  Sunday  newspaper.     The  widespread  example 


ANALYSIS  OF  COMMON  OFFENSES         155 

of  the  Katzenjammers  and  their  ilk  has  corrupted 
more  good  manners  than  the  whole  teaching  fraternity 
can  correct  in  a  decade. 

Obscenity  is  due  partly  to  natural  curiosity  imper-  Profanity 
fectly  and  mistakenly  satisfied,  and  partly  to  imita-  obscenity 
lion.  Probably  imitation  has  more  to  do  with  it 
than  natural  curiosity.  Inscriptions  on  walls,  and 
literature  secretly  circulated,  calling  attention  to 
phases  of  living  of  which  children  would  otherwise 
know  little  or  nothing,  and  the  conversation  of  older 
students,  stimulate  like  thinking  and  talking  among 
children  who  are  often  so  young  that  they  do  not 
realize  the  nature  and  import  of  the  subjects  they 
discuss.  Sharp  supervision  of  premises  and  friendly 
association  with  pupils,  together  with  a  high  standard 
made  reasonable  by  wise  explanation,  are  preventives 
and  cures  of  obscenity.  It  is  very  doubtful  if  the 
evil  can  be  entirely  eliminated  from  our  schools  until 
a  higher  moral  standard  becomes  prevalent  throughout 
society. 

Profanity  is  an  offense  for  which  no  possible  excuse 
can  be  found.  It  has  psychological  efifects  of  a  most 
serious  nature,  aside  from  all  the  religious  considera- 
tions which  make  it  revolting  to  a  majority  of  people. 
Among  children  it  may  be  said  to  be  altogether  an  imi- 
tative vice.  Its  use  demands  the  most  summary  treat- 
ment, as  an  ofifense  against  both  good  taste  and  morals, 
with  efforts  to  build  up  strong  prejudices  in  favor  of 
simple  and  reverent  language. 

Hazing  is  an  offense  found  for  the  most  part  in  Hazing 
college  towns,  where  the  children  in  the  common  schools 
copy  it  from  the  higher  institutions.     Occasionally  it 


156 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


Walkouts 
and  strikes 


Aping 

college 

fraternities 


crops  out  even  in  remote  villages,  however,  instigated 
by  an  ingenious  leader  with  a  big  brother  in  college,  or 
a  book  of  college  stories  in  the  home  library.  Tom 
Brown's  Schooldays  has  introduced  the  custom  into  a 
few  schools,  although  as  a  rule  the  fagging  system  there 
portrayed  was  carried  on  in  ways  so  foreign  to  Ameri- 
can school  customs  as  not  to  carry  over  as  a  practical 
stimulus.  The  example  of  present-day  college  hazing 
is  far  more  suggestive.  The  fact  that  most  high  school 
boys  live  at  home  is  fortunate,  as  it  protects  them 
largely  from  such  treatment. 

The  newspapers  occasionally  chronicle  concerted 
revolts  of  school  children,  in  which  the  methods  used 
are  copied  from  those  of  labor  organizations.  They 
follow  the  imposition  of  some  task  or  course  to  which 
the  pupils  object,  a  change  in  teachers,  or  an  attempted 
reform  for  which  the  way  has  not  been  prepared  by 
building  up  public  opinion  among  the  pupils.  They 
are  the  signs  of  shrewd  thinking  and  an  aroused  self- 
consciousness  peculiar  to  our  own  time,  and  have  been 
considered,  according  to  the  equity  conceded  their 
claims,  a  fine  manifestation  of  the  spirit  of  justice,  or 
a  horrible  example  of  that  perverted  democracy  which 
borders  on  anarchy. 

The  offenses  connected  with  high  school  fraternities 
include  almost  every  asinine  absurdity  imaginable. 
The  spectacular  and  self-indulgent  phases  of  college 
fraternity  life  appeal  very  strongly  to  high  school 
boys  in  whom  the  love  of  good  times  is  strong.  Simi- 
larly, the  fun  and  romance  of  sorority  life  often  mean 
more  to  impressionable  young  girls  than  all  the  breadth 
of  training  which  a  college  education  gives  a  woman. 


ANALYSIS  OF  COMMON  OFFENSES         157 

It  is  natural  that  these  things  should  appeal  to  the 
spirit  of  youth,  but  it  is  dangerous  to  allow  that  appeal 
to  outweigh  the  real  needs  of  healthy  boys  and  girls. 

Our  laws  and  their  enforcement  are  usually  so  lax  Tobacco, 
that  school  authorities  must  be  very  alert  to  protect  drugs  ' 
their  charges  against  the  enterprise  of  those  who  com- 
mercialize the  vice  of  catering  to  depraved  appetites. 
That  is  to  say,  popular  indifference  and  ignorance 
have  forced  upon  the  school  the  fight  for  unspoiled 
minds  and  free  wills,  for  good  materials  upon  which 
to  work.  Teachers  must  prepare  the  field  before  seed 
may  be  sown,  and  guard  it  constantly  from  the  spoiler. 
In  this  matter  the  natural  instinct  of  imitation,  which 
leads  boys  to  smoke  or  drink  because  their  fathers  and 
elder  brothers  do  so,  is  stimulated  by  pretty  systematic 
suggestion  or  even  urgent  inducements.  The  manu- 
facturers of  cigarettes  play  skilfully  upon  the  boyish 
love  of  doing  things  that  are  manly;  and  they  supple- 
ment the  appeal  to  the  instinct  of  imitation  by  an 
appeal  to  the  instinct  of  acquisitiveness,  when  they 
offer  pictures,  pennants,  and  other  premiums  with  the 
tobacco.  The  logical  cure  for  an  evil  based  on  imita- 
tion is  to  do  away  with  the  example,  which  means  an 
abstinence  on  the  part  of  teachers  and  parents  at 
which  the  most  conscientious  often  stop  short.  There 
will  probably  be  some  smoking  on  the  part  of  boys  so 
long  as  men  continue  to  smoke,  but  the  evil  can  be 
reduced  to  a  minimum  if  a  courageous  stand  be  taken 
upon  the  question. 

Drinking  among  school  children,  and  the  use  of 
drugs,  are  similarly  the  effect  of  environment,  sugges- 
tion,  and  direct  appeal  by  those  interested.     There 


1S8  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

are  in  most  localities  strict  ordinances  concerning  the 
selling  of  liquor  to  minors,  "rushing  the  growler," 
and  the  sale  of  narcotics.  Where  these  evils  exist  in 
spite  of  the  ordinances  the  school  authorities  and  the 
police  department  have  in  many  places  cooperated  to 
enforce  the  law.  In  other  places,  where  the  police 
department  refused  to  do  anything  to  remedy  the 
wrong,  it  was  necessary  to  interest  numbers  of  citizens 
in  the  condition  of  things  and  bring  the  force  of  public 
opinion  to  bear  upon  the  situation.  The  sale  of  some 
narcotics,    particularly    that    form    of    opium    called 

Heroin  heroin,  and  different  forms  of  cocaine,  is  so  profitable 

that  druggists  risk  severe  penalties  for  the  gain  of  the 
traffic.  Heroin  —  "scat"  or  "joy  powder"  in  the 
vocabulary  of  its  devotees  —  forms  a  fixed  habit  very 
quickly,  and  one  that  is  practically  incurable.  In 
some  schools  the  habit  of  inhaling  chloroform  becomes 
a  fad  before  the  teachers  are  aware  that  it  has  been 
introduced.  In  one  small  town  of  the  Middle  West 
a  boy  had  formed  an  incurable  habit,  which  so  inter- 
fered with  his  work  that  he  was  finally  compelled  to 
leave  school,  before  his  teachers  had  any  inkling  of  the 
cause  of  his  sleepiness  and  dullness.  Children  who  lay 
their  heads  upon  the  desk,  with  handkerchiefs  over 
their  faces  or  with  hands  covering  the  nostrils,  should 

Cocaine  be  watched  carefully.  In  large  cities  it  is  not  uncom- 
mon to  find  children,  especially  colored  children, 
addicted  to  cocaine,  which  can  be  used  in  ways  that 
defy  detection  except  to  experienced  observers.  The 
use  of  headache  powders  of  various  sorts,  especially 
those  based  upon  phenacetin  and  acetanilide,  widely 
advertised  under  pseudo-medical  trade-names,  should 


ANALYSIS  OF  COMMON  OFFENSES         159 

be  guarded  against  carefully.  Many  high  school  girls 
form  the  habit  of  dependence  upon  such  compounds 
without  understanding  the  danger  of  their  use. 

No  less  harmful  are  certain  compounds  widely  sold  _^ 
at  soda-fountains,  and  much  used  by  high  school  and  soda 
college  students  as  stimulants.  It  is  the  duty  of  high  °*^**^°* 
school  principals  to  see  to  it  that  not  only  the  members 
of  classes  in  physiology,  but  all  students,  understand 
clearly  the  great  risk  that  attends  the  use  of  any  drug 
or  drug  compound,  and  that  they  know  the  names  of 
the  compounds  commonly  sold  that  contain  drugs. 
The  most  common  and  therefore  the  most  dangerous 
of  these  are  certain  very  popular  stimulating  com- 
pounds which  are  widely  advertised  in  reputable 
papers  and  magazines,  and  sold  everywhere  at  foun- 
tains, as  well  as  in  bottles  for  home  consumption.  Well- 
informed  physicians  know  the  danger  that  inheres  in 
their  use,  and  where  students  are  found  to  be  addicted 
to  them  they  should  be  sent  to  a  doctor  for  warning  and 
advice.  A  talk  to  the  entire  school  about  these  habit- 
forming  stimulants  may  be  a  good  thing  if  the  physician 
or  principal  can  make  it  sufficiently  earnest  and  im- 
pressive to  be  a  warning  and  not  a  challenge. 

VII.    Offenses  Due  to  Crude  and  Untrained 

Manners 

Children  are  sometimes  guilty  of  very  annoying 
breaches  of  propriety  or  ethics  through  ignorance, 
having  no  intention  whatever  of  doing  wrong.  Inex- 
perienced or  thoughtless  teachers  often  fail  to  take 
into  consideration  the  limited  home  training  of  their 
pupils,  and  blame  and  punish  them  for  offenses  which 


i6o 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


Vandalism 


Impudence 

and 

rudeness 


are  committed  in  all  innocence.  Almost  the  whole 
category  of  school  offenses  comes  occasionally  into  this 
class;  but  ignorance  of  the  law,  of  course,  serves  as  an 
excuse  only  when  there  has  been  neither  home  training 
nor  other  training  to  take  its  place.  A  child  who 
hears  profanity  constantly  at  home  is  not  on  that 
account  excusable  for  using  it  at  school,  after  having 
its  offensiveness  explained  to  him. 

An  offense  largely  due  to  careless  home  habits  is 
the  vandalism  so  common  among  Americans.  It 
comes  of  a  lack  of  respect  for  property  rights  and 
a  poor  appreciation  of  property  itself.  In  their  own 
homes  many  children  are  allowed  to  cut  and  scratch 
as  they  wish;  and  they  naturally  do  the  same  at 
school.  Even  where  parents  insist  on  care  for  their 
own  property,  they  fail  to  teach  the  obligation  of  each 
member  of  the  state  to  care  for  the  common  posses- 
sions. There  is  no  feeling  of  sharing  the  responsibility, 
as  they  share  the  enjoyment,  of  goods  held  by  the  body 
social.  This  ideal  the  school  must  strive  definitely 
to  instill,  and  as  it  becomes  more  general,  the  carving 
of  names  on  desks,  the  marking  up  of  walls,  sidewalks 
and  windowpanes,  and  the  careless  waste  of  public 
commodities,  now  so  common  everywhere,  will  become 
mercifully  less. 

Much  impertinence  is  also  attributable  to  simple 
lack  of  training.  It  may  accurately  represent  the 
pupil's  attitude  or  not,  but  in  any  case  the  parents, 
and  not  the  boys  and  girls,  are  to  blame.  When  one 
considers  the  phraseology  used  by  thousands  of  parents 
to  their  children,  the  wonder  is  that  these  children  ever 
find  words  of  respect  with  which  to  address  outsiders 


ANALYSIS  OF  COMMON  OFFENSES         i6i 

of  their  family  circle.  Such  expressions  as  "say," 
*'heUo,"  "nope,"  and  "yep"  bear  no  implication  of 
disrespect  in  the  minds  of  the  children  who  use  them 
most.  A  boy  in  an  eastern  school,  devotedly  attached 
to  his  manual  training  teacher,  had  to  be  broken 
almost  forcibly  of  the  habit  of  addressing  his  teacher 
as  "Old  Sport,"  which  in  his  home  and  social  circle 
was  a  term  of  affectionate  admiration.  Many  young 
girls,  teaching  their  first  terms  in  country  districts, 
are  annoyed  by  personal  familiarities,  allusions  to 
personal  affairs,  teasing,  and  disrespectful  language, 
which  need  correction,  but  do  not  deserve  punishment. 
The  notable  failure  of  most  country  school  teachers 
lies  in  the  fact  that  they  accept  these  conditions,  while 
deploring  them;  they  make  no  well-planned  effort  to 
change  things.  They  object,  for  instance,  to  being 
addressed  by  their  pupils  as  "Teacher"  rather  than 
by  their  names;  but  they  do  not  teach  their  pupils 
the  custom  of  courteous  people  everywhere,  which 
makes  frequent  use  of  the  individual  name. 

Other  annoying  outcomes  of  neglected  home  train-  Horseplay 
ing  are  the  scuffling,  teasing,  and  other  forms  of  horse- 
play which  are  so  irritating  to  grown  people  in  general, 
and  to  women  of  gentle  breeding  especially.  They 
are  but  the  expression  of  a  normal  love  of  action, 
social  intercourse,  and  rivalry,  by  boys  and  girls  whose 
modes  of  expression  are  primitive  and  limited.  Educa- 
tion changes  the  form  of  expression,  while  punishment 
but  inhibits  action,  reducing  the  healthy  spirits  of 
childhood  to  sullen  sluggishness.  A  tennis  court  and 
a  gymnasium,  regular  calisthenics  and  organized 
athletics,  will  take  care  of  the  physical  exuberance 


i62  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

that  shows  itself  in  these  unpleasant  ways,  if  at  the 
same  time  there  be  given  some  frank  talks  upon  the 
propriety  of  such  actions.  Gentle  manners  and  con- 
sideration are  not  difl&cult  to  develop  when  the  ideal 
is  made  attractive  and  the  laws  of  habit-formation 
may  be  followed  persistently. 

Summary 

School  offenses  are  caused  by 

1.  Physical  and  mental  energy  not  wholly  used  or 
properly  directed. 

2.  A  resentful  resistance  to  a  control  which  pupils 

do  not  understand  or  accept. 

3.  Peculiarities  in  the  physical  condition  of  pupils, 
or  a  faulty  physical  environment. 

4.  The  lack  of  training  in  morals  and  manners,  and 

the  false  and  fallacious  ideals  which  pass  current 
in  society. 

5.  A  desire  to  attract  attention  and  create  a  sensa- 

tion. 

6.  Imitation  of  others. 

7.  The  lack  of  culture. 


CHAPTER  X 

PUNISHMENT 

We  need  to  return  to  at  least  one  idea  preached  to  justification 
our  Puritan  forefathers,  an  idea  which  largely  shaped 
the  lives  of  generations  of  forceful  folk.  This  is  the 
principle  that  no  deviation  from  the  moral  law  is  with- 
out its  penalty.  Every  sin  has  its  punishment.  Every 
sin  has  its  punishment  in  the  deterioration,  or,  to  put 
it  positively,  the  lack  of  development,  in  the  character 
of  the  sinner.  This  is  inevitable  and  automatic,  a 
law  of  life  that  requires  no  deus  ex  machina  for  its 
enforcement.  If  they  were  solitary  creatures,  men 
might  rest  content  with  the  justice  of  this  law,  allow- 
ing each  person  to  work  out  his  own  salvation  or 
condemnation.  But  society  is  an  intricate  web  of 
mutual  influences  and  common  responsibilities,  and 
transgressors  bring  suffering  upon  many  others,  seen 
and  unseen,  besides  themselves.  To  reduce  the  suffer- 
ing caused  by  wanton  injustice  and  thoughtlessness, 
society  has  taken  it  upon  itself  to  penalize  infringe- 
ment of  the  rights  of  others.  Taking  a  cue  from 
nature,  which  never  allows  an  infraction  of  law  to  go 
unpunished,  men  have  assumed  the  right  to  attempt 
to  control  selfish  and  thoughtless  folk  for  the  general 
good  of  all  folk.  Obviously,  all  offenses  against 
society  can  not  be  punished;  to  punish  the  most 
flagrant  keeps  busy  the  machinery  of  the  law. 


164 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


Historical 
aspect 


The  right 
to  punish 


There  are  two  other  historic  functions  of  punish- 
ment besides  that  of  protection;  ^  these  are  the  func- 
tions of  expulsion,  which  is  but  a  further  measure  of 
protection,  and  expiation,  which  is  an  instinctive  and 
universal  concession  to  religious  and  ethical  feehngs. 
Formerly,  society  always  referred  its  right  to  punish 
to  divine  sanction,  although  acting  instinctively  in 
self-defense.  With  modern  self-reaHzation,  has  come 
a  tendency  to  claim  frankly  the  inherent  right  to  pro- 
tect itself  and  advance  its  interests;  and  in  this  new, 
common  ground  society  finds  a  new  strength,  one  that 
the  old  appeal  to  an  unseen  authority  could  not  have. 

The  right  to  punish  is  therefore  the  right  of  society 
to  protect  itself  from  the  predatory  individual.  It  is 
the  right  to  ofifer  the  inducement  of  freedom  for  respect 
of  others'  rights.  It  is  the  right  to  impress  and  illus- 
trate the  immutable  law  of  compensation,  which  asso- 
ciates good  with  happiness,  and  evil  with  suffering. 
It  resides  in  the  state,  because  the  state  is  the  embodi- 
ment of  the  social  will,  an  intelligence  with  keenly 
self-preservative  instincts.  It  resides  in  parents,  who 
wish  to  see  their  children  grow  in  goodness  and  become 
a  blessing  in  the  earth.  It  resides  in  teachers  as  the  agents 
of  the  state  and  the  trustees  of  certain  special  functions 
in  the  training  of  children,  given  over  by  their  parents. 

The  first  thing  for  the  teacher  to  remember  is  that  pun- 
ishment is  a  righteous  means  of  ^securing  righteous  ends;^ 

1  Saleilles,  Individualization  of  Punishment,  pp.  20-51. 

2  White,  School  Management,  193-7,  gives  as  the  ends  of  punish- 
ment the  clarification  and  emphasis  of  the  association  of  wrong- 
doing with  pain;  the  warning  of  others;  and  the  reformation  of 
the  offender.  The  same  authority  gives  (p.  198)  certainty,  justice, 
and  naturahiess  as  the  three  characteristics  of  effective  punishment. 


PUNISHMENT  165 

that  it  is  a  most  important  element  in  the  scheme 
of  school  management,  since  its  omission  when  de- 
served, and  its  unjust  infliction,  are  both  serious 
betrayals  of  the  sacred  trust  imposed  in  the  teacher. 
And  a  second  fact  to  be  remembered  is  that  proper 
preventive  measures  will  largely  do  away  with  the 
oflfenses  which  require  punishment. 

The  Motives  for  Punishment 

Considered  historically,  there  have  been  four  motives  Retaliation 
for  school  punishments,  following  the  motives  which 
have  actuated  men  in  their  meting  of  punishment  in 
other  spheres.  The  earUest  was  simple  retaUation, 
following  the  primitive  notion  of  repaying  an  eye  for 
an  eye.  The  relationship  between  teacher  and  students 
was  almost  that  of  master  and  servants,  and  any 
infringement  of  rules  was  a  personal  affront  to  the 
dignity  and  authority  of  the  master.  It  was  punished 
in  the  same  spirit  in  which  parents  upheld  their  au- 
thority by  beating  disobedient  children  —  not  so  much 
for  the  good  of  the  child  as  for  the  good  of  the  parent's 
offended  vanity.  In  spite  of  the  littleness  of  the  motive 
the  method  was  an  effective  one  for  the  time  when 
thought  moved  slowly  and  when  conscious  social 
obUgation  had  not  developed  in  the  minds  of  men. 
It  restrained  through  fear,  it  emphasized  selfish  ends, 
and  minimized  social  obligation;  but  its  value  to  men 
was  very  great,  for  it  did  put  a  premium  on  considera- 
tion for  others  and  on  self-control. 

With  the  substitution  of  courts  of  justice  for  personal  Expiation 
vengeance  in  restraining  the  lawless,  there  grew  up  a 
feeling  that  every  offense  had  its  expiation,  and  punish- 


i66  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

ment  became  the  price  of  a  misdeed.  This  was  a  long 
step  in  advance  of  the  old  idea  of  punishment  as  per- 
sonal vengeance,  since  it  made  justice  a  universal, 
inevitable  principle,  theoretically  operating  whether 
or  not  there  were  one  to  enforce  it.  Society  at  large 
recognized  its  duty  of  championing  all  who  were 
oppressed  by  superior  force,  and  also  its  duty  to  protect 
itself  by  attaching  a  penalty  to  evil-doing.  Similarly, 
the  good  pedagogues  of  a  half-century  gone  published 
lists  of  what  were  to  be  considered  offenses,  and  at- 
tached to  each  its  expiatory  penalty.  It  was  their 
idea  of  dealing  an  impartial,  and,  so  far  as  might  be, 
an  infalUble  justice. 
Sureness  Now,  in  relinquishing  the  once  cherished  privilege 

menT*^'  °^  meting  out  an  expiatory  penalty  for  his  brother's 
misdeeds,  men  have  not  denied  the  principle  of  expia- 
tion. They  have  but  yielded  to  the  working  of  laws 
that  operate  infallibly  and  universally,  a  function  to 
which  neither  the  wisdom  nor  the  power  of  men  is 
equal.  They  know  that  he  who  breaks  the  laws  of 
Nature  and  of  Justice  will  surely  suffer,  even  though 
his  breach  affect  no  other  human  being.  This  sure- 
ness of  the  penalty  of  doing  wrong  is  very  hard  for 
children  and  young  people  to  realize  and  to  believe. 
There  is  a  delay  in  the  working  out  of  consequences 
that  leads  youth  to  a  fallacious  assurance  that  al- 
though others  may  suffer,  there  is  for  it  a  way  of  escape 
from  the  punishment  of  evil.  It  is  in  the  interest  of 
sound  views  and  wholesomely  rationalized  prejudices, 
then,  that  men  emphasize  the  inevitability  of  punish- 
ment, the  impossibility  of  escape  from  expiating 
wrongdoing. 


PUNISHMENT  167 

In  times  characterized  by  much  airy  disregard  for  Theprotec- 
the  fundamental  laws  of  compensation,  and  by  much  sodety 
disbelief  in  any  positive  standards  of  right  and  wrong, 
and  by  the  confused  ideas  of  moral  obligation  that  are 
their  sure  consequence,  it  is  needful  that  we  keep  in 
sight  this  old  and  unpopular  truth.  Punishment  is 
to  be  administered  as  a  means  of  social  protection; 
even  the  motive  of  reforming  the  offender  resolves  itself 
in  a  last  analysis,  for  the  social  authorities,  into  that  of 
protecting  and  elevating  the  race.  But  society  evades 
its  duty  if  it  does  not  also  emphasize  the  individual's 
duty  to  himself,  and  his  relation  to  those  universal 
laws  of  cause  and  consequence  to  which  he  is  subject. 
He  is  not  only  to  be  restrained  from  doing  wrong,  but 
he  is  to  be  led  to  restrain  himself  from  doing  wrong; 
and  in  this  ultimate  duty  of  authority,  a  conviction 
of  the  inevitabihty  of  expiation,  and  its  righteousness, 
is  no  small  element. 

Existing  with  both  the  motives  noted,  but  recog-  Prevention 
nized  rather  later,  was  the  motive  of  prevention.  This 
was  the  social-protection  phase  of  punishment.  A 
murderer  is  put  to  death  that  other  would-be  murderers 
may  be  restrained,  and  human  beings  rest  in  compara- 
tive security.  As  a  preventive  measure,  race  experi- 
ence has  given  few  expedients  more  effective  than 
prompt,  sure  punishment.  It  is  recognized  that  the 
delay  and  laxness  of  our  courts  in  the  United  States 
are  largely  responsible  for  the  shameful  prevalence  of 
crime  among  us.  And  no  teacher  need  be  told  that  an 
offense  in  school  that  goes  unpunished  is  Uable  to  breed 
other  and  worse  offenses.  The  fallacious  and  mistaken 
pity  for  evil-doers,  in  school  and  out,  which  sacrifices 


Refonnation 


1 68  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

the  interests  or  safety  of  many  that  one  may  be  spared 
deserved  pain,  is  one  of  the  saddest  examples  we  have 
of  the  working  of  maudHn  sentimentaUty.  The  pre- 
ventive phase  of  punishment  is  one  of  its  chief  aims 
and  justifications. 

What  punishment  aims  to  do  for  society  it  also  aims 
to  do  for  the  ofifender.  It  proposes  to  protect  him,  by 
saving  him  from  the  worst  and  final  consequences  of 
his  evil  acts  by  visiting  upon  him  without  fail  a  restric- 
tive measure  of  pain.  It  follows  the  ancient  and  uni- 
versal laws  of  nature,  which  through  the  association 
of  pain  with  the  breaking  of  natural  laws,  lead  men 
through  self-interest  to  be  law-abiding.  This  is  the 
last  and  the  highest  motive  for  which  punishment  is 
given.  It  brings  about  reformation  through:  (i)  the 
restraining  influence  of  three  agents,  viz.:  the  actual 
pain  inflicted  of  whatever  kind  —  physical  suffering, 
humihation,  deprivation  of  privileges  or  freedom  usually 
enjoyed;  through  (2)  the  enforced  contemplation  of  the 
nature  of  the  deed  and  its  consequences,  which  its 
serious  treatment  involves;  and  through  (3)  the  by- 
products of  punishment,  the  social  obloquy  and  other 
losses  which  follow,  or  should  follow,  wrong-doing. 
The  true  Qf  the  four  motives,  it  is  almost  needless  to  add,  the 

motives  for 

punishment  first  has  long  since  been  abandoned  as  unworthy  of 
enhghtened  human  beings.  The  second,  while  it  is 
recognized  as  an  important  element  in  punishment  in 
its  subjective  aspect,  is  no  longer  offered  as  a  justifica- 
tion for  the  infliction  of  penalties.  Men  have  ceased 
to  consider  themselves  called  upon  to  punish  other  men 
for  the  sake  of  balancing  the  moral  scales.  They  are 
not  so  cocksure  of  their  judgment  in  ethical  matters 


PUNISHMENT  169 

as  they  formerly  were.  But  to  advance  the  safety  and 
progress  of  humanity,  and  to  effect  the  reformation  of 
those  whose  conduct  interferes  with  that  safety  and 
progress,  sane  men  everywhere  feel  called  upon  to 
support  the  agencies  that  punish  wrong.  In  the  school, 
similarly,  the  two  great  motives  of  punishment  now 
recognized  are  the  protection  of  the  interests  and  ends 
of  the  school,  and  the  reformation  of  dehnquents. 

Individualization  of  Punishment 

Criminologists  are  working  upon  the  problem  of 
dispensing  a  truer  justice  than  can  be  given  by  a  literal 
enforcement  of  the  criminal  law.  Circumstances  and 
motives  and  the  capacity  for  reformation  vary  so 
widely,  that  a  strict  appHcation  of  even  the  wisest 
possible  law  may  result  in  the  defeat  of  the  purposes 
for  which  that  law  was  made.  Saleilles  says  that  there 
are  three  types  of  individuaUzation,  prescribed  respec- 
tively by  statute,  by  the  judge,  and  by  the  prison 
authorities.  In  the  school  the  teacher  is  law  and  judge  '^®. 
and  warden,  and  has  a  knowledge  of  circumstances  advantage 
and  character  that  few  of  the  authorities  who  try  to 
reform  grown  offenders  can  hope  to  have.  Here  the 
material  is  more  pliable,  habit  being  still  in  the  making, 
and  love  and  hope  and  faith  have  a  justifiable  place 
in  every  decision.  Unless  he  has  been  so  foolish  as  to 
make  threats,  unless  the  Board  of  Education  has  lim- 
ited his  authority,  a  teacher  is  untrammeled  and  can 
vary  the  treatment  of  each  particular  case  to  suit  the 
real  needs  of  the  child. 

This   individualization   of   treatment   is   absolutely 
essential  to  justice  and  helpfulness.    No  good  teacher 


17© 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


Social  and 
individual 
penalties 


"treats  them  all  alike."  No  group  of  school  children 
should  ever  feel  that  they  know  the  cost  of  any  par- 
ticular misdeed.  Uncertainty  concerning  the  nature  of 
punishment  is  part  of  its  value  as  a  deterrent.  What 
is  a  deliberate  sin  in  one  child  is  but  a  thoughtless 
imitation  or  an  innocent  impulse  in  another,  and  correc- 
tive means  should  differ  accordingly.  All  offenses 
exist  primarily  in  the  will  of  the  offender,  and  the  act 
may  or  may  not  be  a  reliable  index  to  the  mental  condi- 
tion and  wishes  of  the  pupil.  It  would,  for  instance,  be 
cruelly  and  foolishly  unjust  to  mete  out  the  same 
punishment  to  a  half -grown  boy  who  has  played  truant, 
and  to  his  six-year-old  brother  who  "tagged  along." 

There  is  another  sense  in  which  the  term  "individu- 
alization of  punishment "  may  be  used.  The  protective 
phase  of  punishment  springs  largely  from  the  fact  that 


A's 
Offence 


affeeti 
I 


Society 


D\ 


{B 


A's 
Offence 


I  \ 


(Socjetpj 

Punisjtment 

should  be 

restricted 

to 


D) 


I 


(Society) 

\  I  / 

\        to  blame        / 

\   r   / 
]  4  / 

/     Offince     \ 

\ 

t  I  \ 

I     Punishment    *^ 
/  should  rebound  \ 

!  V"  \ 


(Society) 


D\ 


the  consequences  of  sin  are  social.  If  A  commits  an 
offense,  its  consequences  affect  B,  C,  and  D.  These 
three  persons  suffer  through  no  fault  of  their  own,  but 
because  of  the  interrelationship  of  social  forces.  If 
the  fault  of  the  sin  lies  with  A  alone  —  that  is,  if  it  be 


PUNISHMENT  171 

a  fault  of  selfishness,  not  of  ignorance  and  weakness 
for  which  others  are  to  blame  —  justice  demands  that 
as  much  as  possible  of  the  consequence  of  the  act  be 
transferred  from  B,  C,  and  D,  the  innocent  sufferers, 
to  A  J  who  is  to  blame.  Individualization,  then,  in 
this  sense,  is  the  replacing  of  the  punishment  on  A. 
But,  if  the  ofi^ense  is  one  for  which  society  is  to  blame, 
then  society  is  bound  to  suffer  its  share  of  the  penalty, 
which  it  does  by  the  working  of  an  inevitable  moral 
law. 

For  instance:  In  an  eastern  city  two  boys  were  An 
brought  to  a  principal  in  a  single  week  for  carrying  ®^*™p® 
beer  from  a  saloon  to  their  fathers  during  the  noon 
hour.  There  were  ordinances  against  this,  which  the 
school  authorities  had  found  it  necessary  to  use  as  a 
support  for  their  own  efforts  to  stop  the  evil.  One 
offender  was  an  American  boy  who  knew  perfectly  the 
strict  law  against  minors  who  entered  saloons;  the 
other  a  httle  Himgarian  lad  whose  father  was  as  igno- 
rant as  he  of  the  fact  that  he  was  breaking  a  law.  In 
one  case  society  had  done  its  duty  and  the  boy  was 
made  to  suffer  the  extreme  penalty.  In  the  other, 
there  was  no  formal  punishment,  for  ignorance,  which 
in  law  is  no  excuse  for  an  infraction,  is  really  the  best 
of  vindications  where  circumstances  justify  the  allow- 
ance of  the  excuse.  In  one  case,  the  punishment  was 
made  as  individual  in  its  application  as  the  misdeed 
had  been,  while  in  the  other  the  absence  of  the  will  to 
transgress,  coupled  with  the  fact  that  the  boy's  environ- 
ment had  not  given  him  the  knowledge  that  made  such 
an  act  a  misdeed  to  him,  would  have  made  a  punish- 
ment an  injustice. 


172  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

Two  cases  Let  US  take  the  treatment  of  whispering  as  an  example 
of  the  individualization  of  punishment.  In  a  room 
where  whispering  is  rife,  where  the  teacher's  attitude 
is  lax  and  all  the  pupils  are  inattentive  and  idle,  it 
would  be  the  rankest  kind  of  injustice  to  single  out  one 
child  and  punish  him  for  a  fault  for  which  all  his  world, 
and  especially  the  teacher,  is  to  blame.  The  punish- 
ment —  poor  lessons,  bad  habits,  wasted  effort,  an 
inefficient  school  —  must  be  borne  socially,  as  it  was 
caused  socially.  But  in  a  school  where  the  teacher  has 
high  ideals  of  attention  and  order  and  holds  the  pupils 
to  them,  a  single  boy  who  wilfully  persists  in  annoying 
others  by  whispering  should  be  severely  dealt  with. 
He  has  had  every  help  and  incentive  to  right-doing, 
and  has  chosen  to  transgress.  The  natural  result  of 
his  offense  is  social,  since  many  pupils  suffer  from  the 
disturbance  of  his  communication;  but  the  object  of 
his  punishment  is  to  individuahze  the  penalty,  to 
restrict  it  to  the  one  person  who  is  guilty. 
When  not  It  has  been  said  that  the  three  objects  of  punishment 

topumsh  ^j.g  |.j^g  protection  of  society,  the  expiation  of  wrong 
doing,  and  the  reformation  of  the  offender.  For 
practical  schoolroom  purposes,  perhaps,  the  objects  of 
punishment  narrow  down  to  the  first  and  the  last  of 
these  three.  When  other  people  do  not  need  protec- 
tion, when  there  is  no  prospect  of  reforming  the  of- 
fender through  the  infliction  of  pain  of  any  kind,  there 
is  no  object  in  meting  out  punishment.  The  culprit 
may  be  left  to  the  natural  punishment  which  is  bound 
up  in  the  nature  of  his  transgression.  But  as  there  are 
few  school  offenses  which  will  not,  if  uncorrected,  result 
woefully  for  the  school,  and  as  human  beings  usually 


PUNISHMENT  173 

need  the  stimulus  of  penalty  to  keep  them  from  evil, 
there  are  really  few  cases  where  no  punishment  should 
be  given.  That  punishment  should  always,  as  Spencer  Spencer's 
says  in  his  famous  exposition,  be  proportionate  to  the  p"""p^® 
seriousness  of  the  offense,  as  well  as  inevitable  and 
prompt.^  But  there  are  some  cases  in  which  teachers, 
especially  young  teachers  fearful  of  failure  in  their 
duties,  punish  where  there  is  no  real  guilt.  For  instance, 
many  transgressions  are  due  to  ignorance  or  to  bad 
habits  acquired  through  the  carelessness  or  selfishness 
of  others,  in  which  justice  demands  that  punishment  be 
commuted  when  possible  if  the  offender  shows  a  desire 
to  change  his  ways.  It  would  be  manifestly  unjust, 
for  instance,  to  punish  a  room  for  whispering  or  noisy 
movements,  if  a  former  teacher  had  allowed  such  con- 
duct under  the  cover  of  "spontaneity"  or  some  other 
cloak  for  bad  order. 

Immediate  and  Delayed  Consequences 

Nature  punishes  some  offenses  at  once,  and  others 
after  long  waiting.  The  child  who  touches  a  hot  stove 
is  instantly  burned,  while  he  who  eats  too  much  pie 
and  jam  may  not  suffer  from  indigestion  until  after 
many  years.  Similarly,  one  boy  who  fails  to  learn  hi? 
geography  lessons  misses  promotion  at  the  end  of  a 
term,  while  another  passes,  but  loses  a  business  oppor- 
tunity ten  years  later,  because  of  his  ignorance.  In 
determining  the  punishment  for  offenses,  therefore, 
teachers  may  choose  between  immediate  and  deferred 
consequences.  The  question  is  one  that  rises  fre- 
quently, and  one  that  has  bearings  so  intricate  and 

*  Spencer,  Education,  N.Y.,  1895,  p.  175. 


174 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


Advantages 
of  imme- 
diate action 


Advantages 
of  delayed 
action 


perplexing  that  it  is  difl&cult  to  decide  upon  any  very 
definite  means  of  choosing  between  the  two. 

The  advantage  of  immediate  punishment  Hes  in  the 
powerful  effect  produced  by  quick  action  and  an  un- 
mistakable association  with  the  misdeed  in  question. 
Its  moral  effect  upon  others  is  usually  stronger  for  this 
reason  than  that  of  delayed  punishment.  The  fact 
that  the  reconciliation  following  punishment,  the 
resumption  of  cordial  relations  between  teacher  and 
pupil,  comes  so  much  more  quickly  when  punishment 
is  given  at  once,  than  when  it  is  delayed,  is  an  addi- 
tional reason  for  having  it  over  with  as  soon  as  possi- 
ble. The  depressing  effects  of  the  sullen  or  fearful 
anticipation  of  a  child  who  looks  forward  to  a  com- 
ing punishment  are  felt  often  by  all  the  pupils  in  a 
room,  and  preclude  the  friendly  and  cordial  relations 
that  should  exist. 

On  the  other  hand,  delayed  action  has  the  important 
recommendation  that  it  serves  the  ends  of  justice 
rather  more  surely  than  immediate  action.  Hasty 
judgment  or  sudden  anger  may  prompt  a  punishment 
too  severe,  or  mete  punishment  to  the  wrong  person. 
Anger  cools,  and  saving  second  thought  brings  many 
things  to  remembrance,  with  the  passing  of  time. 
And,  if  the  punishment  be  a  just  and  severe  one,  suited 
to  an  offense  of  a  serious  nature  (for  which  the  delayed 
punishment  is  usually  reserved),  the  delay  may  con- 
centrate pubHc  opinion  upon  the  case,  so  that  the  moral 
effect  of  the  punishment  when  finally  executed  is  far 
stronger  than  if  it  had  been  hastily  administered.  The 
impressiveness  of  deliberate  action,  which  weighs  aU 
considerations  well  before  decision  is  reached,  tends 


PUNISHMENT  175 

to  fix  in  the  minds  of  those  who  observe  it,  the  justice 
of  the  judicial  process  and  verdict.  A  further  advan- 
tage in  delayed  punishment  is  the  opportunity  for 
thought,  given  the  culprit  who  awaits  the  deserts  of 
his  misdeed. 

Owing  to  the  greater  power  of  older  children  to  keep  Age  as  a 
in  mind  the  association  between  a  deed  and  its  conse-  /J^-igjon 
quences,  punishment  may  wisely  be  delayed  for  them, 
when  its  effect  upon  young  children  would  be  lost  by 
delay.  Little  folk  not  only  forget  quickly,  but  often 
fail  to  see  relations  of  cause  and  effect  at  all.  They 
associate  the  pain  of  punishment  with  whatever  hap- 
pens to  be  most  related  to  it  chronologically,  not  having 
learned  by  experience  that  cause  and  effect  may  be 
widely  separated  in  time.  This  confusion  is  obviated 
when  punishment  follows  a  misdeed  immediately. 
Children  who  are  old  enough  for  serious  reflection,  on 
the  other  hand,  "carry  over"  the  connection  between 
deed  and  consequence  and  think  about  it  as  long  as 
the  incident  remains  open.  For  this  reason  the  serious 
offenses  of  older  pupils  should,  as  a  rule,  not  be  pun- 
ished at  once,  but  left  in  a  condition  of  suspended 
consequences  for  a  time.  Often  the  attention  directed 
to  them  by  the  pupils  themselves  brings  to  the  teacher 
valuable  suggestions  for  the  treatment  of  similar  evils 
in  the  future,  while  the  seriousness  of  the  offense  is 
emphasized.  Slight  offenses,  of  course,  should  be 
dealt  with  summarily. 

Many  offenses  belong  to  the  category  of  habit-break-  Nature  of 
ing  acts,  which  being  neglected,  undo  the  good  work  ^saUiSoT 
of  much  persistent  effort  on  the  part  of  both  teachers 
and  pupils.    That  instinct  may  aid  volition,  then,  it 


176  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

is  important  that  an  act  which  breaks  the  sequence  in 
a  habit-forming  series  be  followed  at  once  by  painful 
consequences.  But  if  the  offense  be  one  of  judgment, 
the  mistake  to  be  corrected  is  one  of  thought,  and 
time  should  be  allowed  for  contemplating  the  decision, 
that  a  reversal  of  the  mistaken  judgment  may  be  made. 
An  ana-  A  boy  in  a  village  school  in  South  Carolina  played 

misdeed  truant  one  sunny  afternoon,  took  a  horse  from  his 
uncle's  stable,  and  rode  far  into  the  woods  in  search 
of  nuts  and  mushrooms.  In  coming  home  the  horse 
stumbled  over  a  log,  and  was  returned  quite  lame, 
late  in  the  evening.  After  a  consultation  between  the 
principal  and  the  boy's  uncle,  it  was  decided  that  he 
should  be  punished  at  once  for  his  truancy,  since 
regular  attendance  was  a  habit  that  he  should  not 
have  allowed  to  lapse.  But  the  reparation  made  to 
his  uncle  was  left  for  him  to  decide,  and  he  was  given 
a  week  in  which  to  think  about  the  matter.  At  the 
end  of  that  time  he  announced  that  he  would  work 
for  his  uncle  after  school,  giving  up  basketball  and  ten- 
nis, until  he  had  paid  him  in  work  the  bill  of  the  veteri- 
nary who  treated  the  horse,  and  the  value  of  the  horse's 
services  lost  because  of  his  lameness. 
Certainty  as  Again,  Unquestioned  offenses,  the  lapses  from  habit- 
ual order  which  are  undoubtedly  subversive  of  the  good 
of  the  school,  may  well  be  dealt  with  summarily.  But 
where  any  doubt  whatever  exists  concerning  the  plac- 
ing of  the  blame,  or  concerning  the  justice  of  blame, 
it  is  safe  and  just  to  delay  judgment  until  the  question 
of  equity  is  assuredly  answered. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  foregoing  considerations  may  be 
of  help  to  teachers  in  deciding  the  difficult  alternative 


a  factor 


PUNISHMENT  177 

of  prompt  and  delayed  punishment.  But  no  rule 
that  will  always  apply  can  be  formulated.  Chance 
circumstances  may  affect  the  policy  used  in  ways  that 
can  never  be  foreseen.  In  general,  however,  it  is  safe 
to  say  that  imless  some  circumstance  points  clearly 
to  the  wisdom  of  delaying  judgment  and  punishment, 
that  they  should  follow  the  misdeed  as  quickly  as 
possible. 

Summary 

The  functions  of  punishment  are  to  protect  society 
from  those  inclined  to  exploit  it  for  their  own  interest, 
to  satisfy  the  demands  of  justice  by  expiation,  and  to 
reform  the  offender. 

Offenses  should  be  punished  in  the  light  of  the  motives 
prompting  them,  and  the  punishment  should  be  visited 
upon  individuals  or  upon  society  in  accordance  with 
the  jSxing  of  blame.  Immediate  punishment  should 
follow  offenses  when  there  is  need  of  emphasizing  the 
connection  between  a  deed  and  its  result,  but  with 
older  children  delayed  punishment  may  be  more  im- 
pressive. The  age  of  the  offender,  his  motives,  and 
the  certainty  or  uncertainty  of  his  guilt  are  factors  in 
deciding  upon  immediate  or  delayed  punishment. 


CHAPTER  XI 
PUNISHMENT  (Continued) 

Undesirable  Punishments 

Threats  The  primitive  ideas  of  government  by  force  and 

obedience  through  fear  are  not  so  far  from  every  one 
of  us  as  we  may  flatter  ourselves  they  are.  They  are 
still  dominant  in  the  teacher  who  punishes  by  threaten- 
ing further  punishment.  It  is  true  that  punishment 
follows  sin  as  its  right  and  natural  consequence ;  but  to 
secure  right  conduct  through  imposing  a  dread  of  pain 
is  to  cheapen  righteousness  without  strengthening  it. 

When  a  teacher  sees  fit  to  direct  his  pupils  to  do  a 
thing,  let  him  do  so.  It  is  not  necessary  to  state  the 
penalty  for  disobedience,  and  to  do  so  presupposes  a 
possible  transgression.  Children  follow  suggestions 
instinctively  —  they  are  an  irresistible  challenge  to 
their  imaginations.  To  say,  "Do  not  do  this,  or  such 
a  thing  will  happen  to  you,"  is  to  give  a  dare  that 
spirited  children  are  quick  to  take.  Besides,  to  attach 
a  price  to  a  transgression  is  to  put  it  among  the  pur- 
chasable things.  Many  children,  and  many  grown 
people  as  well,  have  an  idea  that  they  have  a  moral 
right  to  commit  any  sin  they  choose  if  they  pay  the 
price  for  it.  Let  things  forbidden  be  forbidden  abso- 
lutely, and  let  direction  rest  upon  its  real  authority  as 
the  best  expression  of  the  will  of  society  which  the 


PUNISHMENT  179 

teacher  can  give.  If  the  law  be  transgressed,  then, 
the  teacher  has  not  bound  himself  to  any  course  of 
action.  He  may  punish  as  seems  most  wise  and  just, 
untrammeled  by  preconceptions  of  the  nature  of  the 
offense. 

The  tasks  imposed  as  punishments  are  of  two  classes  Tasks 
—  those  which  are  extra  lessons,  and  those  which  are 
entirely  different  from  the  usual  school  work.  The 
latter  are  sometimes  advisable,  the  former  never. 
For  instance:  John  had  idled  away  the  half -hour  given 
him  for  studying  his  spelling-lesson,  and  in  conse- 
quence had  missed  half  the  words.  He  deserved 
punishment  for  his  idleness,  and  he  needed  to  learn 
his  spelling-lesson,  therefore  his  teacher  kept  him  after 
school.  This  extra  session  probably  punished  the 
teacher  more  than  it  did  John,  but  if  the  teacher 
chooses  to  give  extra  time  to  her  task  she  has  a  right 
to  do  so.  Her  first  impulse  was  to  say  to  John: 
"John,  you  may  go  when  you  can  spell  the  words  in 
this  lesson  correctly,  and  in  addition  ten  from  the  next 
column." 

Such  a  penalty,  however,  instead  of  changing  John's 
attitude  toward  his  work,  would  but  intensify  it.  He 
who  before  thought  spelHng  a  bore,  would  class  it  now 
as  an  imposition.  Work,  which  teachers  want  to  make 
attractive,  is  reduced  by  such  means  to  the  plane  of 
an  activity  for  malefactors.  John's  teacher  said  to 
him: 

"You  wasted  the  half -hour  which  the  other  children 
used  for  learning  this  lesson,  and  so  you  must  take 
another,  which  they  have  for  play,  in  which  to  learn  it. 
Then  you  wasted  the  recitation-period  by  writing  a 


to  think 


i8o  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

list  of  words  spelled  wrong,  and  now  you  must  redeem 
that  time  by  writing  the  list  correctly.  I'll  pronounce 
the  words  for  you  when  the  time  comes." 

She  then  began  to  work  on  a  set  of  papers  which 
she  had  to  correct,  while  John  set  himself  to  learn  the 
spelling-lesson.     In  ten  minutes'  time  he  had  mastered 
it,  and  asked  if  he  might  not  recite. 
A  chance  "Certainly  not,"  replied  the  teacher.     "The  half- 

hour  which  you  wasted  is  not  yet  redeemed.  I  will 
call  upon  you  when  the  time  comes."  As  a  rule  chil- 
dren should  not  sit  idly,  but  this  teacher  made  John 
sit  quietly  during  the  remaining  twenty  minutes,  which 
ticked  away  Uke  so  many  hours  for  the  impatient  boy 
in  the  long,  still  room.  Only  the  occasional  rattle  of 
the  papers  on  the  teacher's  desk  broke  the  silence. 
Once  John  heard  his  team,  at  basket-ball  practice  in 
the  schoolyard,  give  a  yell  for  Somer,  who  was  taking 
his  place  as  center.  The  half-hour  was  gone  finally, 
and  he  wrote  the  list  of  words  correctly  at  the  teacher's 
dictation. 

"Was  the  time  long?"  asked  the  teacher. 

"I  should  say  so.     Ages,"  repHed  John. 

"All  of  it?" 

"Well,  I  didn't  notice  it  until  I  got  the  lesson  learned. 
Then  it  just  dragged." 

"Was  the  lesson  the  hard  thing,  then?" 

"Oh,  no.  I  got  a  lot  of  fun  out  of  learning  that 
lesson  as  fast  as  I  could,  because  I  thought  you'd  let 
me  go  when  I  had  it.  It  was  the  rest  of  the  time  that 
I  put  in  that  I  didn't  like.  Doing  nothing  is  hard  work, 
like  you  said  once." 

"But  you  can  learn  your  lesson  in  ten  minutes  any 


PUNISHMENT  i8i 

day,  and  spend  the  rest  of  the  time  at  the  library- 
table  or  the  sand-map.  You  might  as  well  have  the 
fun  of  doing  that  every  day,  as  to  waste  the  period 
and  then  have  to  lose  your  play-time." 

John  thought  this  over  a  moment. 

"I  think  I  get  the  idea.  Miss  Thomas,"  he  said. 

He  had,  indeed,  *'got"  a  new  idea  of  spelling  lessons. 
He  had  also  been  appropriately  punished  for  his  wasted 
and  misspent  half-hour. 

Writing  long  words  or  phrases  dozens  or  hundreds 
of  times,  memorizing  poetry,  working  extra  problems 
in  arithmetic,  drawing  maps,  and  looking  up  references 
are  bad  forms  of  punishment.  They  are  bad,  because 
they  reduce  the  legitimate  work  of  the  schoolroom 
to  disgraceful  drudgery,  confute  the  hardly-instilled 
idea  of  the  dignity  of  labor,  induce  mental  phlegmatism, 
and  are  both  too  easily-borne  and  too  ordinary  for 
efficient  punishment.^ 

There  are  some  tasks  which  may  be  used  as  punish-  School 
ment,   without   quite   so   disastrous   effects   as   those  ^^^^J® 
caused  by  this  use  of  lesson-tasks.     Pupils  have  been  punishment 
made  to  erase  blackboards,  carry  coal,  weed  garden- 
beds,  or  carry  materials,  as  punishments.     The  effect 
is  similar,  however,  and  less  objectionable  only  as  it 
affects  secondary  rather  than  the  primary  object  of 
the  school.     Any  teacher  who  knows  how  happy  it 

*  A  careful  distinction  is  to  be  made  between  the  use  of  lesson- 
tasks  as  punishment,  and  the  requirement  that  lessons  be  mastered 
before  they  are  left.  Thorough  teaching  requires  that  a  neglectful 
or  deficient  pupil  be  kept  at  his  work  until  it  is  as  well  learned  as 
possible.  In  the  incident  just  given,  for  instance,  the  learning  of 
the  spelling-lesson  was  not  a  punishment;  the  detention  for  the 
extra  twenty  minutes  was. 


i82  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

makes  children  to  be  permitted  to  do  even  the  meanest 
task  about  the  schoohoom,  will  agree  that  nothing 
could  be  more  unfortunate  than  to  change  the  whole- 
some idea  that  to  serve  is  an  honor.     Such  punish- 
ments, moreover,  are  subject  to  the  further  criticism 
that  they  give  to  manual  labor  an  unpleasant  or  even 
disgraceful  connotation.     There  are  sufficient  means  of 
punishment  to  be  had  without  recourse  to  the  expedient 
of  using  the  pleasant,  helpful  school  tasks  in  this  way. 
Staying  in         Detention  during  the  time  which  is  supposed  to  be 
and  after       free  from  formal  school  work  is  a  very  common  punish- 
schooi  ment.     It  is  used  for  two  main  purposes,  the  perform- 

ing of  regular  lesson  tasks  which  should  have  been 
mastered  during  the  study  period,  and  as  an  absolute 
punishment  for  misdemeanors.  The  first  of  these 
punishments  is  discussed  in  the  following  pages.  The 
second  seems  to  be  rarely  if  ever  justifiable,  for  these 
reasons: 

1.  It  infringes  on  time  needed  for  the  outdoor  play 
absolutely  essential  for  normal  children.  It  cheats 
the  physical  side  of  the  child's  development. 

2.  It  lengthens  the  already  long  hours  of  the  teacher's 
schoolroom  employment.  He,  also,  needs  outdoor 
exercise. 

3.  It  is  unbusiness-like.  Schools  should  close  as 
promptly  as  they  open,  except  for  pupils  who  need 
extra  help  or  time  for  the  main  object  —  the  school 
work. 

4.  It  makes  a  prison  of  the  schoolroom,  giving  it  a 
lastingly  unpleasant  connotation. 

5.  If  idle,  the  pupil  is  forming  a  bad  habit  during 
the  time  of  detention.     If  engaged  in  a  school  task, 


PUNISHMENT  183 

he  is  forming  the  wrong  idea  of  work.     If  allowed  to 
do  something  he  likes,  he  is  not  being  punished. 

An  especially  pernicious  sort  of  punishment  is  to  Depriving 
deprive  a  child  of  good  marks  already  earned  by  good  ^^* 
recitations  or  other  good  conduct,  as  a  punishment  for 
bad  behavior.  This  method  may  indeed  give  a  very 
effective  check  to  misbehavior,  for  many  bright  children 
who  value  a  high  rating  can  be  reached  through  a  low 
grade  quickly  and  easily.  But  the  essential  injustice, 
as  well  as  the  illogical  confusion  of  two  more  or  less 
distinct  elements  in  the  school  record,  has  a  demoral- 
izing effect  upon  the  developing  sense  of  justice  and 
appropriateness.  For  instance,  in  one  school  a  teacher 
gives  her  pupils  a  zero  for  that  day  if  she  has  to  correct 
them  during  the  recitation.  As  a  consequence,  the 
brightest  boy  in  the  class  received  65  one  month  as  a 
grade  in  algebra,  because,  having  finished  his  problems 
before  the  rest,  he  could  never  resist  the  temptation 
to  play  while  waiting  for  the  others  to  finish.  As 
there  were  good  but  slow  pupils  in  the  class  whose 
grades  were  higher  than  the  star  pupil's,  the  teacher's 
judgment  and  justice  were  called  into  question.  No 
explanation  of  the  basis  of  grading  could  quite  excuse 
so  flagrant  a  discrepancy  between  the  boys'  work  and 
the  estimate  of  it  given  in  the  grades.  The  grade 
given  for  a  study  should  represent  the  pupil's  ability 
in  that  subject.  Separate  markings  should  show  his 
deportment,  if  it  is  thought  best  to  include  that  in  the 
regular  report. 

There  is  a  class  of  punishments  now  so  rare  as  Personal 
scarcely  to  deserve  mention  here,  but  which  were  once  "*  ^^°^  ** 
common  in  public  schools.    These  were  the  penalties 


i84  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

whose  essential  feature  was  personal  humiliation. 
They  included  the  wearing  of  dunce  caps,  seating 
pupils  on  a  dunce  block,  gagging  (an  old  punishment 
for  whispering),  pulling  hair,  twisting  ears,  calling 
names,  dressing  boys  in  girls'  clothes,  and  placing 
children  in  ridiculous  and  undignified  positions  for 
the  school  to  laugh  at.  Humiliation  is,  or  should  be, 
part  of  all  true  punishments;  but  it  should  come  from 
a  realization  of  the  loss  of  self-respect  that  follows  on 
wrongdoing,  and  not  from  a  crude  action  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher,  the  person  above  aU  others  who  should 
be  a  model  of  dignity  to  the  children  under  his  care. 
A  very  common  method  of  punishment  is  to  force  the 
Saturation  culprit  to  commit  his  offense  until  he  has  become 
thoroughly  tired  of  it,  when  its  association  will  be  so 
unpleasant  that  he  is  presumed  to  be  cured  of  the  desire 
to  repeat  it.  Arnold^  has  given  the  name  of  "Satura- 
tion" to  this  method.  It  is  only  moderately  effective, 
and  can  be  justified  upon  scarcely  any  psychological 
grounds.  For  instance,  a  boy  who  is  humming  under 
his  breath  is  discovered,  and  set  before  the  school 
with  instructions  to  sing.  He  does  one  of  three  things. 
He  may  sing,  in  a  spirit  of  bravado,  to  the  delight  of 
his  classmates  and  the  defeat  of  his  teacher,  as  long  as 
they  have  time  to  listen.  He  may  be  really  ashamed, 
and  obey  slowly  and  reluctantly,  in  a  faltering  voice. 
He  may  be  terror-struck  or  defiant,  and  absolutely 
and  persistently  refuse  to  obey.  In  the  first  case  the 
punishment  obviously  fails  to  be  a  remedy.  In  the 
second  it  is  an  effective  punishment,  and  the  child  may 
refrain  from  a  repetition  of  the  offense  through  a  fear 

1  School  and  Class  Management ,  page  303. 


PUNISHMENT  185 

of  consequences,  which  is  better  than  no  cure  at  all. 
But  the  reason  for  refraining  from  humming  in  school 
has  not  appeared  in  the  punishment.  The  teacher 
can  not  really  object  to  humming  in  school,  argues 
the  child,  for  she  took  time  to  have  singing,  which 
interfered  with  the  school  work  far  more  than  humming 
does.  And  there  can  be  nothing  intrinsically  wrong 
with  humming  or  singing  in  study  time,  or  the  teacher 
would  not  have  a  boy,  even  a  bad  boy,  do  it.  In  the 
third  case  the  teacher  has  complicated  her  problem 
by  increasing  the  offense,  for  which  she  must,  if  her 
authority  is  not  to  suffer,  further  punish  the  child. 
On  the  whole,  the  method  of  punishment  by  saturation 
is  seldom  advisable. 

A  too  literal  application  of  the  principle  that  every  The 
misdeed  leads  to  its  appropriate  penalty,  has  developed  ate^pun?^- 
what  some  teachers  fondly  imagine  are  especially  ment" 
efficacious  remedies.  The  scrubbing  out  of  the  mouths 
of  boys  guilty  of  profanity,  with  soft  soap  or  washing 
powder,  is  an  example  of  this  sort  of  punishment. 
Doubtless  it  is  not  too  severe  for  this  sort  of  offense, 
but  beyond  its  severity  the  penalty  has  little  to  recom- 
mend it.  The  simile  stands  in  the  way  of  the  moral 
lesson.  Not  the  boy's  mouth,  but  the  boy's  soul, 
his  character,  has  been  polluted.  The  tying  up  of 
feet  that  have  strayed  in  forbidden  places,  the  sealing 
with  clothespins  or  courtplaster  of  lips  that  whisper 
overmuch,  are  other  examples  of  punishments  that 
waste  in  mere  ingeniousness  the  energy  that  should 
be  spent  in  building  up  the  pupil's  reform.  Too 
unusual  a  punishment  absorbs  the  attention  that 
should  be  focussed  on  a  change  of  habit. 


1 86  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

Sarcasm  The  least  desirable  of  all  punishments,  perhaps,  is 
ridicule  ^^^  ^se  of  sarcasm  and  ridicule.  This  is  because  it 
destroys  the  first  requisite  for  success  in  the  teacher- 
pupil  relation,  which  is  confidence  and  friendliness. 
Sarcasm  may  occasionally,  with  pupils  old  enough  to 
understand  the  point  made,  be  effective  in  reforma- 
tion; but  young  children  understand  the  sting  without 
catching  the  point.  Ridicule  has  even  less  excuse. 
The  only  legitimate  use  of  ridicule  in  the  schoolroom 
is  as  a  last  resort  with  an  inordinately  conceited  or 
impertinent  child;  and  even  then  better  means  are 
usually  to  be  found.  In  ordinary  cases  sarcasm  is 
but  a  mean  and  self-indulgent  means  of  venting  the 
ill-nature  of  a  teacher,  and  can  not  be  condemned  too 
severely.  Ridicule  indicates  a  fundamental  and  lam- 
entable lack  of  sympathy  with  childhood,  which  takes 
V  itself  very  seriously  and  is  hurt,  above  all  things  else, 

at  levity  in  the  attitude  of  others.     To  laugh  with 

<  children  is  to  be  eternally  young,  to  have  found  the 
secret  of  joy;  but  to  laugh  at  them  is  the  first  sign  of 
a  bitter  old  age. 

Desirable  Punishments 

Colgrove  ^  gives,  as  legitimate  negative  incentives, 
the  following  classes  of  punishments:  Reproof,  public 
and  private;  loss  of  privilege;  restitution,  in  cases  of 
injury  to  property;  detention  to  perform  a  neglected 
task;  suspension,  and  in  extreme  cases  corporal  punish- 
ment and  expulsion.  The  same  authority  gives  the 
following  rules  for  all  punishments,  which  sum  up 
pretty  accurately  the  test  to  which  discipKnary  measures 
1  The  Teacher  and  the  School,  page  390. 


/ 


PUNISHMENT  187 

should  be  put.  "All  punishments  should  be  used," 
says  Dr.  Colgrove,  "only  as  temporary  expedients  to 
supplement  positive  incentives.  Whenever  possible, 
they  should  be  the  natural  outcome  of  the  pupils' 
misconduct.  They  should  be  just,  proportioned  to  the 
gravity  of  the  offense  as  measured  by  inner  motives, 
not  the  outer  act.  They  should  be  educative  and 
reformatory;  and  they  should  be  economical,  not 
drawing  unduly  upon  the  nervous  and  emotional 
energy  of  either  teacher,  school,  or  offender." 

With  some  such  limitations  in  mind  as  this  category 
imposes,  we  wish  to  enumerate  some  of  the  means  of 
punishment  which  are  constructive  in  effect,  reforma- 
tory in  nature,  helpful  to  the  individual  punished, 
protective  with  reference  to  others. 

The  social  nature  of  the  school  and  of  our  natural  isolation 
instincts  furnishes  the  cue  for  what  is  perhaps  the 
most  logical  and  effective  of  all  punishments  for  older 
children,  and  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  best  reforma- 
tory measures.  As  a  rule,  children  do  not  like  school 
primarily  because  they  Uke  the  lessons,  but  because 
they  come  into  contact  there  with  a  great  number  of 
eager  young  people  with  whom  they  have  a  multitude 
of  common  interests.  They  lend  themselves  readily 
to  the  direction  of  teachers  so  long  as  their  own  wills 
do  not  clash  with  the  guiding  will  for  the  school,  or 
until  the  unity  of  the  school  life  is  broken  by  outside, 
opposing  interests.  That  is,  so  long  as  the  social  organ- 
ization of  the  school  is  satisfactory,  so  long  as  all  con- 
tribute to  its  general  purposes,  there  can  be  no  trouble. 
But  if  one  pupil  breaks  the  unity  by  opposing  his  will 
to  the  guiding  will  which  directs  the  activities  of  all. 


i88 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


A  natural 
solution 


Alternative 
courses 


the  social  organization  loses  its  effectiveness,  the  work 
or  play  halts,  goes  limping  where  it  should  go  smoothly, 
or  in  extreme  cases  is  altogether  stopped. 

Groups  of  children  in  their  play  have  arrived  in- 
stinctively at  the  sensible  solution  of  the  problem  of 
the  unsociaUzed  individual.  If  one  child  refuses  to 
play  according  to  the  rules,  and  can  not  be  coerced  into 
obeying  them,  he  is  excluded  from  the  game,  and  may 
play  by  himself  or  not  at  all.  The  number  in  the 
game  is  less,  but  the  unity  of  the  plajdng  group  is  not 
broken.  Usually  the  child  comes  back  after  a  time, 
because  the  incentive  offered  is  greater  than  the  satis- 
faction of  maintaining  his  independence.  If  he  do 
not,  the  pleasure  of  the  group  has  not  been  sacrificed 
to  the  pleasure  of  one;  the  greatest  good  to  the  greatest 
number  has  been  realized. 

Similarly,  in  the  school,  when  one  pupil  or  a  group 
of  pupils  refuses  to  comply  with  the  regulations  which 
are  made  for  the  good  of  the  whole  body,  there  are 
two  methods  of  dealing  with  them.  They  may  be 
forced  to  comply,  or  they  may  be  excluded  from  the 
social  body  of  the  school,  and  from  the  advantages 
that  come  from  the  school's  social  organization.  In 
the  earher  part  of  their  school  Hfe,  it  is  better  to  force 
them  to  comply,  for  habits  are  being  formed  at  this 
time,  not  rationally,  but  by  suggestion,  imitation, 
and  compulsion.  But  when  the  age  of  reasoning  is 
reached,  when  we  wish  to  develop  the  volition  of  chil- 
dren under  the  control  of  the  reason  and  of  high  ideals, 
the  force  of  a  controlling  will  is  largely  withdrawn, 
and  the  pupil  left  free  to  make  his  own  decisions. 
At  this  point  it  is  important  that  the  social  nature  of 


PUNISHMENT  189 

the  school,  its  dependence  upon  the  loyal  support  of 
each  member,  be  made  thoroughly  clear,  and  with 
that  the  advantages  of  this  combination  of  forces, 
the  fruits  of  cooperation.  Plainly,  it  is  not  fair  that 
those  who  tear  down  the  fabric  should  enjoy  its  ad- 
vantages. They  shut  themselves  out  by  their  own 
action.  They  may  justly  —  justly  to  the  larger  num- 
ber —  be  excluded  from  the  social  activities  of  the 
school  until  they  are  ready  to  agree  to  abide  by  the 
rules  of  the  game. 

There  are  several  practical  ways  of  using  this  pimish-  Methods  of 
ment  of  isolation.     Troublesome  pupils  may  be  seated  ^PP^^ation 
apart  at  the  back  of  the  room,  where  temptation  is    y 
reduced  to  a  minimum  for  all  concerned.     Refusing    ' 
the  privilege  of  oral  participation  in  class  exercises 
and  general  exercises,  and  of  the  privileges  usually 
given  to  pupils  (discussed  more  fully  in  the  following 
pages  under  the  head  of  deprivation  of  privileges), 
and  giving  a  separate  recess,  as  long  as  the  regular 
recess  but  at  another  period,  are  ways  of  applpng 
the     principle    of    isolation    as    a    punishment    and 
corrective. 

The  reporting  to  parents  of  the  misdeeds  of  children  Reports  to 
is  one  of  the  punishments  the  wisdom  and  efficacy  of  p^°*^ 
which  depend  very  much  upon  local  conditions  and 
individual  circumstances.  Some  parents  agree  to  be 
responsible  for  their  children's  behavior,  and  wish  to 
have  full  and  frequent  news  of  their  progress  and 
standing.  Others  turn  them  over,  body,  mind,  and 
immortal  spirit,  to  the  school,  and  demand  results 
only.  However,  it  is  fair  to  parents  that  they  should 
know  when  their  children  fall  below  the  standard  in 


XQO 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


Using 
public 
opinion 


Deprivation 
of  privilege 


any  way,  and  the  reception  of  the  first  report  shows 
the  teacher  what  leverage  there  may  be  in  the  parental 
attitude.  With  many  children  a  report  of  wrong- 
doing to  their  parents  is  the  most  effective  way  of 
preventing  a  repetition. 

The  feeling  of  social  solidarity  may  be  further 
utilized  in  building  up  traditions  and  customs  of 
mutual  responsibility,  which  go  far  toward  eliminating 
the  necessity  for  formal  punishment.  Children  can 
be  made  to  feel  responsible  for  one  another's  conduct, 
and  so  take  upon  themselves,  voluntarily,  a  degree  of 
control  which  helps  to  develop  their  social  natures 
and  the  feeling  of  social  obligation.  In  attendance, 
for  instance,  if  there  be  a  conscious  pride  in  having  a 
good  record  for  the  whole  room,  each  boy  and  each 
girl  will  make  it  his  business  to  know  why  a  classmate 
is  absent;  and  if  there  be  no  good  reason  for  the  ab- 
sence, to  bring  back  the  delinquent.  The  disapproval 
of  his  fellows  is  the  most  effective  of  all  punishments; 
public  opinion  is  among  the  strongest  of  all  goads  to 
action  or  incentives  for  restraint.  The  school  in  which 
the  will  of  the  whole  body  of  pupils  is  bent  toward 
good  work  and  good  order  is  an  ideal  state  in  Uttle,  a 
microcosm  of  the  millennium. 

A  form  of  punishment  which  combines  the  good 
quahties  of  theoretical  equity  and  effectiveness,  is 
taking  away  the  privileges  of  pupils.  Freedom  is 
rightly  possessed  by  those  who  use  it  well;  restriction 
is  the  penalty  for  selfish  and  harmful  behavior.  Some 
of  the  privileges  which  children  appreciate,  but  of 
which  they  may  be  deprived  as  a  punishment  without 
interfering  with  their  more  important  duties,  are: 


PUNISHMENT  191 

1.  Passing  books,  pencils,  etc.,  and  collecting  the 
same. 

2.  Going  to  water-bucket,  waste-basket,  or  dic- 
tionary without  special  permission. 

3.  Playing  with  other  children,  or  being  a  member  of 
athletic  teams. 

4.  Reading  at  the  magazine  table  after  finishing 
lessons. 

5.  Leading  the  line  when  marching,  or  exercises  at 
recreation  time. 

6.  The  privilege  of  reciting  in  class.  This  is  a 
rather  severe  punishment  for  children  who  care  much 
for  their  standing  or  whose  interest  in  school  work 
shows  itself  in  the  natural  desire  to  talk  about  it. 
The  teacher's  "I  can't  call  on  a  boy  who  can't  respect 
other  people's  rights,"  or  "You  have  forfeited  your 
right  to  talk  in  this  class,  Joe,  until  you  can  prove  to 
us  that  you  can  talk  at  the  right  time,"  is  a  punish- 
ment that  most  children  feel  keenly.  The  lesson 
need  not  be  lost  on  this  account,  as  the  teacher  may 
require  that  it  be  written  out  and  handed  in  for  credit. 
It  does  not  therefore  work  an  injustice  by  reducing  ~^ 
the  grade  or  taking  away  all  incentive  for  study. 

7.  The  privilege  of  being  a  class  officer  or  repre- 
sentative, or  contestant  for  the  school  in  an  inter- 
scholastic  contest. 

With  very  small  children,  there  are  many  ways  of  Punish- 
driving  home  the  aUenating  effects  of  disobedience  or  Stiie*peopie 
other  unsocial  conduct,  which  older  children  would 
vigorously  resent  were  any  teacher  so  unwise  as  to 
try  them.     Conformity  to  custom  and  to  the  standards 
set  for  them  is  a  strong  characteristic  of  little  folk. 


192  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

To  be  deprived  of  the  privilege  of  wearing  their  best 
clothes  on  Visitors'  Day,  for  instance,  is  the  most 
severe  punishment  that  can  be  inflicted  in  a  great 
public  institution  where  the  children  wear  uniforms. 
In  many  primary  rooms,  an  effective  punishment  is 
to  make  the  culprit  stand  for  fifteen  minutes  in  a 
circle  chalked  upon  the  floor.  One  teacher  binds  a 
small  towel  lightly  over  the  faces  of  naughty  boys  and 
girls,  because  she  "can't  bear  to  see  the  faces  of  bad 
children."  Another  has  a  "naughty  bench"  out  of 
sight  behind  the  piano,  where  there  is  ample  room  and 
light  for  study,  but  where  disturbing  elements  in  the 
school  may  be  safely  isolated. 

In  some  German  schoolrooms,  where  each  child  has 
a  little  pot-plant  all  his  own  (a  delightful  custom, 
which  might  be  adopted  in  American  schools  to  ad- 
vantage), this  is  taken  away  as  a  punishment,  and 
kept  in  another  room  until  better  behavior  wins  it 
Punishment  back.  Putting  boys  into  girls'  clothes,  or  reversing 
avoided  the  process  for  girls,  is  undignified  even  in  primary 
schools.  To  put  a  boy  into  a  corner,  with  a  paper 
cap  upon  his  head  labeled  "Bad  Boy"  (a  modification 
of  the  old  Dunce  Cap)  is  no  punishment  at  all  for  the 
soldierly  lad,  and  a  humiliating  means  of  losing  self- 
respect  for  others.  The  old  expedient  of  standing 
children  in  corners  should  be  sparingly  used.  It  is 
an  exhausting  form  of  punishment  from  the  physical 
point  of  view,  and  is  especially  dangerous  because  it 
is  hard  to  find  employment  for  the  child,  who  some- 
times emerges  from  such  an  experience  farther  from 
reform  than  he  was  before. 

This  aim  of  punishment  should  always  be  held  in 


PUNISHMENT  193 

mind :  the  punishment  that  does  not  bring  the  offender 
nearer  to  the  goal  of  responsible  effort  to  do  right, 
has  at  least  partly  failed,  even  though  that  punish- 
ment succeed  gloriously  in  its  good  oflSces  to  other 
people.  The  ineffectiveness  of  much  thoughtless  pun-  ^^  ^j^^^ 
ishment  is  illustrated  by  a  story  of  the  small  son  of  a  purpose? 
well-known  Chicago  educator.  This  man  came  home 
one  day  to  find  his  Httle  boy  in  tears.  Being  asked 
what  was  the  matter,  the  sobbing  boy  finally  made  him 
understand  that  he  had  missed  the  words  in  his  spelling- 
lesson. 

"But  don't  cry  over  that,"  urged  his  father.  "You 
can  learn  them  now.     It  isn't  too  late." 

"But  that  isn't  all,"  continued  the  little  boy.  "The 
teacher  shook  me,  too.  And  the  worst  of  it  is,  father, 
that  I  didn't  know  the  words  any  better  after  she  shook 
me  than  I  did  before." 

The  deprivation  of  privilege  sometimes  appears  in  inpri- 
odd  forms  in  a  primary  school.  For  instance,  a  very  ^^ 
successful  teacher  sometimes  declines  to  wear  a  pretty 
pink  gown,  which  the  children  especially  love,  when 
they  have  been  rude  or  selfish.  Almost  aU  primary 
teachers  use  the  corresponding  positive  incentive, 
wearing  bright  and  pretty  waists  or  frocks  to  please 
the  children.  A  big  Teddy  bear,  which  ordinarily 
sits  on  a  little  chair  near  the  teacher's  table  in  one 
primary  room,  comes  down  to  visit  the  children  and 
sits  demurely  beside  them  when  they  have  been  good; 
but  disappears  in  the  big  closet  when  they  have  been 
noisy  or  rude.  A  teacher  of  immigrant  children  in 
New  York  utilizes  the  adoration  of  her  charges  for 
American  heroes,  by  taking  down  the  picture  of  Lincoln 


194  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

when  a  serious  offense  has  been  committed,  or  when  a 
general  attitude  of  mischief  mars  the  day's  work  and 
play.  The  same  act  would  scarcely,  one  fears,  be  a 
punishment  for  American  children. 
Restitution  The  logical  punishment  for  vandalism  and  theft  is 
restitution.  To  mend  the  damage  done  as  perfectly 
as  may  be  is  the  very  least  that  an  offender  can  do. 
Further  punishment  is  sometimes  advisable,  especially 
when  restitution  is  accomplished  without  appreciable 
sacrifice  on  the  part  of  the  culprit.  A  boy  from  a 
wealthy  home  and  the  son  of  a  day-laborer  were 
playing  ball  in  a  forbidden  court  of  the  school  premises, 
when  the  baU  went  through  a  large  pane  of  glass. 
The  mother  of  the  rich  boy  sent  a  glazier  at  once  to 
repair  the  damage,  pa)dng  the  entire  expense.  The 
father  of  the  other  boy  wished  his  son  punished  for 
disobedience,  which  seemed  to  him  the  real  sin.  The 
teacher  decided  that  both  boys  deserved  a  punish- 
ment for  their  disobedience,  and  proceeded  to  admin- 
ister it.  The  mother  who  had  paid  the  bill  objected, 
sa5dng  that  the  damage  was  repaired  and  that  the 
matter  should  therefore  be  dropped.  She  thought  her 
son  had  been  harshly  and  unjustly  treated.  The 
incident  illustrates  the  impression  that  is  liable  to 
ensue  when  restitution  is  regarded  as  the  only  necessary 
sequel  to  such  a  deed. 

Absolute  honesty  in  restoring  aU  that  has  been  lost 
through  the  carelessness  or  wantonness  of  pupils  is  the 
only  possible  standard  of  punishment  for  deeds  of 
vandalism.  It  is  much  better  if  the  pupil  be  made  to 
earn  the  means  for  repaying  the  loss,  or  do  the  work 
himself.     Children  should  feel  that  they  are  respon- 


PUNISHMENT  195 

sible  for  the  school  or  other  property  entrusted  to  them 
for  use. 

If  aU  ordinary  means  fail,  there  still  remain  the  Suspension 
extreme  measures  of  isolation  —  suspension  and  ex- 
pulsion. A  child  is  practically  suspended  whenever 
he  is  excluded  from  his  classes;  this  is  done  sometimes 
by  the  individual  teacher.  It  is  plain  that  suspension 
gives  no  leverage  for  raising  the  pupil,  unless  he  has 
a  reason  to  fear  its  effects.  If  he  misses  classes  for 
several  days,  he  may  fail  that  month,  and  perhaps  for 
the  term  or  year;  but  that  is  no  incentive  to  good 
conduct,  unless  he  wants  to  pass.  Family  and  personal 
pride  are  the  teacher's  best  allies  here;  and  also  the 
disgrace  of  suspension.  Suspended  pupils  should  not 
be  sent  home,  but  should  be  kept  in  the  principal's 
ofl&ce  or  some  other  place  at  school,  while  word  is  sent 
to  the  parents  of  what  has  happened.  This  does  not 
apply  to  the  pupil  who  may  be  trusted  to  do  what  he 
is  told  to  do;  but  that  sort  of  boy  is  not  the  boy  who 
is  suspended,  as  a  rule.  The  suspended  boy  rarely 
goes  home  when  sent;  he  seeks,  with  telepathic  sure- 
ness,  the  haunts  of  the  street  loafers  who  wiU  listen 
sympathetically  to  his  tale  of  woe,  and  strengthen  his 
resistance  by  justifjdng  it.  Even  if  he  goes  home,  he 
is  less  likely  to  find  the  needed  corrective  guidance 
and  suggestion  there,  than  in  some  place  under  school 
control.  Sometimes  a  talk  with  some  business  or 
professional  man,  preferably  a  board  member,  will 
send  the  culprit  back  to  his  work  with  a  new  point  of 
view,  and  a  new  resolve  to  do  the  right  thing.  There 
must  be  a  plan  of  reformation,  however;  do  not  turn 
a  suspended  pupil  loose  on  the  world  at  this  critical 


196 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


Expulsion 


Maimer 


time.  The  enforced  idleness  of  a  long  wait  in  the 
principal's  ante-room  gives  a  chance  for  thinking  that 
prepares  the  child  for  the  final  interview. 

At  this  interview  the  parents  or  guardians  of  the 
child  should  hear  the  story  of  the  offense,  first  from 
the  teacher  and  then  from  the  child,  after  which 
the  conditions  attached  to  receiving  the  child  again 
into  the  school  should  be  stated  fully.  A  frank  talk 
usually  results  in  a  better  understanding  and  in  the 
reinstatement  of  the  offender.  Teachers  can  often 
tell  parents  wherein  they  fail  in  their  duty  toward 
their  children,  and  parents  can  often  return  the  com- 
pliment. 

If  a  child  is  really  xmfit  to  attend  the  pubhc  school 
he  should  be  removed.  Expulsion  is  only  for  those 
boys  and  girls  who  are  utterly  unfit  to  be  associated 
with  other  children.  They  are  the  degenerate,  the 
hardened  young  offenders  who  corrupt  the  manners  of 
their  schoolmates,  those  who  will  yield  to  no  ordinary 
means  of  control  and  cause  constant  trouble.  To 
allow  incorrigibles  to  remain  in  school,  of  course,  is  to 
encourage  constant  anarchy.  There  are  other  places 
for  such  children. 

The  expulsion  of  troublesome  pupils  may  be  managed 
in  such  a  way  as  to  strengthen  the  authority  of  the 
school.  Where  the  pupil  expelled  has  been  a  notorious 
offender,  a  certain  degree  of  publicity,  with  no  smooth- 
ing over  of  the  disgrace  involved,  will  do  something 
toward  counteracting  his  bad  influence  upon  the  school. 
The  secret  trial  is  seldom  wise,  except  in  cases  where 
sensational  disclosures  would  but  feed  an  unhealthy 
appetite  for  scandal.     Cases  of  expulsion  should  be 


PUNISHMENT  197 

treated  very  seriously,  deliberately,  and  with  a  view 
to  the  moral  effect  of  the  action  taken. 

The  case  of  the  very  bad  boy  is  not  disposed  of  when 
he  has  been  excluded  from  the  public  school.  Released 
from  its  restraint,  he  is  in  a  fair  way  to  do  more  harm  After 
than  ever,  unless  he  is  put  into  some  institution  where  ®^^  ^°" 
he  has  a  chance  of  reformation.  To  turn  him  loose 
in  the  streets  is  but  to  transfer  his  operations  from  a 
small  field  to  a  large  one,  and  from  one  in  which  his 
good  behavior  is  the  definite  business  of  someone,  to 
one  in  which  no  one  is  delegated  to  look  after  him. 
The  other  half  of  the  duty  of  the  school  authorities 
is  to  see  that  steps  are  taken  toward  the  committal  of 
such  an  offender  to  a  reform  school  or  other  special 
institution,  where  special  facilities  and  teachers  may 
effect  a  change  beyond  the  power  of  the  public  school 
to  work. 

Corporal  Punishment 

Corporal  punishment  is  generally  regarded  as  a 
last  resort  among  means  of  correction.  It  may  save 
the  day  when  all  else  fails,  and  so  must  not  be  read  out 
of  the  list  of  possibihties;  but  it  is  dangerous,  anti- 
quated, and  uncertain  in  effect.  It  is,  as  its  opponents 
claim,  a  primitive  means  of  control,  unsuited  to  modern 
ideals  of  government  and  to  highly  developed  and 
sensitive  children.  Many  pupils  in  the  public  schools, 
however,  are  primitive  creatures  from  primitive  homes, 
and  are  sensitive  only  to  the  stimulus  of  bodily  pain, 
or  the  humiliation  that  attends  its  infliction.  "We 
face  a  condition,  not  a  theory."  We  have  in  our 
schools  children  environed  by  ignorance  and  want  and 


198  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

sin.    They  must  tread,  at  least  in  part,  the  upward 

path  traversed  in  generations  past  by  the  ancestors 

of  more  favored  children,  who  evolved  high  ideals  from 

experiences  that  abounded  in  knocks  and  cuffs.     Where 

the  methods  of  a  past  age  are  the  only  ones  that  will 

accomplish  the  work,  there  they  must  be  used.     The 

great  task  is  to  bring  about  the  ends  of  the  school; 

to  be  compelled  to  use  harsh  means  is  unfortunate,  but 

to  fail  is  a  calamity. 

A  practical         Corporal  punishment  is  "a  relic  of  the  dark  ages." 

considera-      go  are  those  characteristics  of  human  nature  that  will 
tion 

respond  to  no  gentler  stimuh.  So  are  all  the  condi- 
tions of  our  living  which  keep  alive  the  brutal  in  man- 
kind. But  to  assume  that  all  human  beings,  and 
especially  those  whose  powers  of  rationalization  are 
still  rudimentary,  may  be  governed  by  the  motives 
that  at  present  only  the  more  advanced  people  compre- 
hend, is  utter  foolishness.^  To  formulate  an  ideal  of 
human  relationship  from  which  force  may  be  elimi- 
nated, is  a  helpful  and  inspiring  exercise;  to  base  a 
comprehensive  system  of  practical  control  upon  it, 
to  be  applied  to  human  beings  now,  is  a  Quixotic 
fallacy. 

There  has  been  much  mushy  sentiment  of  late  years 
in  some  quarters  concerning  corporal  punishment.  It 
is  true  that  at  least  nine- tenths  of  the  floggings  of 
times  past  were  unnecessary.  It  is  true  that  children 
properly  taught  are  rarely  bad,  and  that  tact  and 
kindness  accomplish  ends  that  force  can  never  com- 
pass. It  is  true  that  children  have  been  injured  by 
brutal  schoolmasters,  and  that  injustice  may  condemn 

^  Perry,  The  Management  of  a  City  School,  pp.  266-7. 


PUNISHMENT  199 

the  innocent  to  unmerited  pain.  But  those  who  have 
observed  the  effect  of  absolutely  forbidding  corporal 
punishment,  who  know  how  lawlessness,  parental 
dictation,  and  insolence  toward  authority  increase  with 
the  withdrawing  of  this  one  effective  if  arbitrary 
check,  can  not  deny  that  it  has  still  a  place  and  a 
function  in  the  scheme  of  school  control.     Sensible  Sensible 

.  compro- 

people,  while  rejoicing  that  the  era  of  the  hickory  rod  mise 
is  gone  forever,  have  little  patience  with  that  species 
of  soft  pedagogy  which,  in  the  face  of  the  fact  that 
some  children  are  not  amenable  to  persuasion,  spares 
physical  pain  rather  than  use  it  to  secure  the  ends  of 
the  school. 

Where  corporal  punishment  has  been  altogether  done 
away  with,  it  is  usually  the  case  that  sentiment  against 
it  has  been  crystallized  by  some  unjust  or  brutal  case. 
To  guard  against  this,  especially  in  cities  where  the 
political  situation  imposes  on  the  schools  careless, 
ill-trained,  time-serving  teachers,  there  should  be 
regulations  which  prevent  hasty  action,  and  which 
make  it  necessary  to  have  witnesses  to  such  punish- 
ment. Every  safeguard  against  its  abuse  should  be 
adopted  —  but  corporal  punishment  should  not  be 
taken  from  the  list  of  possible  means  of  control.  Rea- 
sonably administered,  it  is  among  the  lighter  punish- 
ments. With  aU  due  regard  to  the  much-vaunted 
"sacredness  of  the  person,"  one  has  no  patience  with 
the  mawkish  sentimentality  which  regards  a  paddling 
as  an  unpardonable  affront  to  the  dignity  of  childhood. 

There  are  some  kinds  of  corporal  punishment  which  Dangerous 
may  permanently  injure  children,  and  which  should  punishment 
therefore   be   forbidden   strictly.    These   include   the 


200 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


Safe 
methods 


.^, 


b 


^ 


severe  canings  once  in  vogue,  boxes  on  the  ear,  flinging 
children  across  desks  and  tables,  striking  upon  the 
head,  violent  shakings,  handslapping  with  a  metal- 
edged  ruler,  and  whipping  with  the  little,  clinging 
switches  which  raise  hard  welts  and  occasionally 
cause  or  aggravate  skin  diseases. 

Paddling,  slapping  the  cheek  ^  or  the  hands,  whip- 
ping (preferably  with  a  wide-bore  rubber  tube),  and 
striking  the  hands  with  a  light  ruler,  are  some  of  the 
means  used  with  refractory  children,  which  do  not 
injure  but  do  smart.  The  humiliation  of  being  struck 
is,  for  most  American  children,  far  deeper  than  the 
physical  pain  is  severe.  This  is  especially  true  when 
punishment  is  given  before  other  children  —  a  proce- 
dure which  some  educators  heartily  condemn,  while 
others  contend  that,  since  the  offense  is  an  offense 
against  the  school,  that  the  culprit  should  be  disgraced 
before  his  fellows,  and  the  lesson  impressed  upon  them. 
Be  this  as  it  may  be,  the  nervous  tension  in  a  room  in 
which  a  pupil  is  being  punished  is  often  so  great  that 
it  punishes  the  innocent  almost  as  much  as  the  guilty. 
Most  people  have  at  some  time  experienced  the  breath- 
less, impressive,  "scared"  quiet  of  such  an  occasion. 
It  has  sometimes  a  salutary  effect  upon  the  school; 
sometimes  quite  the  opposite,  after  the  immediate 
results  are  passed.  Here  is  where  some  knowledge  of 
psychology  and  sociology  will  stand  the  teacher  well 
in  hand;  for  it  is  the  home  training  of  the  pupils,  their 
degree  of  advancement  in  manners  and  motives,  that 

*  There  is  danger  that  in  aiming  at  the  cheek  the  ear  may  be 
struck,  consequently  this  mode  is  not  recommended,  and  in  many 
schools  is  strictly  forbidden. 


PUNISHMENT  201 

must  largely  decide  the  method  used  to  control  them. 
There  is  no  such  thing  as  a  secretly-administered 
corporal  punishment;  no  matter  how  carefully  guarded, 
the  impressive  details  of  such  occasions  are  always 
public  property  soon  after  the  event. 

Substitutes  for  Corporal  Punishment 

All  that  has  been  said  must  not  be  construed  as  a  xhe  appeal 
recommendation  of  corporal  punishment;  it  is  but  a  *°^*^*® 
frank  statement  of  the  necessity  of  meeting  primitive 
minds  with  primitive  arguments,  and  a  justification 
of  the  occasional  use  of  crude  means  to  attain  an 
all-important  result.  One  of  the  most  difficult  prob- 
lems facing  teachers  today,  is  that  of  finding  an  effica- 
cious substitute  for  corporal  punishment,  where  this 
method  has  been  used  until  pupils  and  parents  expect 
no  other.  An  example  of  such  effective  substitution 
comes  from  southern  Illinois,  where  a  young  girl, 
fresh  from  college,  was  engaged  to  teach  a  country 
school  somewhat  notorious  for  its  troublesome  big 
boys.  The  district  had  been  in  the  habit  of  employ- 
ing young  men,  who  usually  managed  to  maintain  a 
fair  degree  of  order  and  industry  after  flogging  a  few 
of  the  ringleaders  of  the  unruly  set.  After  a  number 
of  small  misdemeanors,  for  which  the  new  teacher 
found  means  of  correction  without  recourse  to  corporal 
punishment,  the  oldest  boy  in  the  school  committed 
an  act  of  wanton  vandalism  so  flagrant  that  all  the 
other  children  said  that,  "Teacher  will  either  have  to 
whip  him  or  give  up." 

The   teacher  had  no  mind  to  fight  the  battle  of 
organized  society,  of  law  and  order  and  culture,  against 


202  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

this  audacious  young  outlaw,  single-handed.  She  had 
been  waiting  for  some  such  occurrence  to  begin  a  well- 
planned  campaign.  She  made  her  position  on  the 
matter  clear  to  the  school  by  giving  it  a  quiet  and  very 
earnest  talk  upon  the  obligation  of  citizens  toward 
the  property  of  the  state,  and  upon  the  sin  of  wanton 
destruction.  The  younger  children  were  duly  im- 
pressed, although  they  had  no  conception,  even  after 
explanation,  of  what  "the  state"  meant.  But  the 
oJBFender,  although  he  listened  respectfully,  started 
home  that  night  with  an  air  of  triumph.  He  had  not 
been  whipped,  and  he  boasted  gaily  to  his  schoolmates 
that  he  would  not  be.  He  thought  the  incident 
closed,  with  the  balance  on  his  side. 
Appealing  The  teacher  went  to  her  boarding-place,  called  up 

each  of  the  three  directors,  and  bade  them  meet  at  her 
house  that  night  for  an  important  meeting.  This,  in 
itself,  was  a  bold  departure;  no  country  school-teacher 
had  ever  called  the  directors  together  for  a  meeting 
in  that  vicinity  before.  The  president  was  not  sure 
that  his  dignity  and  prerogatives  were  safe  —  but  he 
promised  to  go.  Every  family  in  the  district  knew 
what  had  happened  by  supper-time.  The  school, 
the  teacher,  and  the  offense  were  the  topics  of  con- 
versation that  evening. 

The  teacher  repeated  her  talk  on  vandalism  to  the 
directors.  She  added  an  outline  of  what  she  was 
tr)dng  to  accomplish  in  the  school.  Having  gained 
their  approval  for  her  program,  she  came  back  to  the 
problem,  this  time  in  its  more  general  phases.  She 
reminded  them  of  the  reputation  of  the  school,  and 
appealed  to  their  pride  to  help  her  change  it.     She 


the  case 


PUNISHMENT  203 

had  a  definite  plan,  and  needed  only  their  hearty  sup- 
port to  make  it  a  success.  One  director,  an  uncle  of 
the  boy  who  had  offended,  declined  to  have  anything 
to  do  with  the  case  for  fear  of  a  family  quarrel;  the 
other  two,  partly  from  curiosity,  promised  their  sup- 
port. 

"Then,"   announced   the   teacher,    "we   will   bring  Enlisting 
this  matter  up  at  an  open  meeting  at  the  schoolhouse  interest 
tomorrow  night.     Since  Mr.  Jones  wants  to  be  excused, 
Mr.  Scammon  and  Mr.  Hough  will  be  the  judges.     I 
will  present  the  case,  and  all  who  wish  to  attend  may 
come,  for  this  question  concerns  the  whole  district." 

"I'll  bet  his  father '11  be  there,"  remarked  Mr. 
Scammon. 

"Of  course  —  I  should  hope  so.  He  is  surely  more 
interested  than  anyone  else  in  his  boy's  behavior," 
replied  the  teacher. 

The  news  of  the  meeting  to  decide  Henry  Jones'  case 
spread  rapidly  through  the  district.  Mr.  Jones,  the 
director,  held  a  long  conversation  with  his  brother 
over  the  telephone,  on  his  return  from  the  meeting, 
in  which  all  the  details  of  the  occurrence  were  re- 
viewed, Henry  standing  sullenly  at  his  father's  elbow 
to  tell  his  tale.  The  father,  although  he  admitted 
that  Henry  had  done  wrong  maintained  that  the 
teacher  was  "no  good"  who  would  make  so  much  fuss 
over  such  a  thing. 

"Why  didn't  she  whip  him  and  be  done  with  it?" 
he  inquired  belligerently.  "That  ain't  no  way  to 
teach  school." 

Henry  went  to  school  the  next  morning  with  a  full 
dinnerpail,  but  he  could  not  study  and  declined  with 


204  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

great  dignity  to  recite.  At  recess  he  was  a  hero;  all 
the  children  forsook  their  play  and  gathered  about 
him  to  discuss  the  situation.  After  recess  he  became 
very  thoughtful,  and  the  room  was  hushed  to  a  sym- 
pathetic quiet.  At  noon  he  went  home  while  teacher 
and  school  were  eating  luncheon.  He  even  left  the 
full  dinnerpail  upon  the  peg. 
Anew  The   teacher   had   not   miscalculated;    the   district 

turned  out  to  the  meeting.  The  Jones  family  attended 
to  a  man  —  Mr.  Jones  defiant,  Mrs.  Jones  softly 
weeping,  the  director  alert  and  non-committal.  Neigh- 
bors discussed  this  unheard-of  event  gingerly,  with 
curious  eyes  on  Henry,  who  sat  on  a  front  seat,  very 
white  and  defiant,  crossing  and  recrossing  his  feet. 
The  teacher  presented  her  case  clearly,  quietly,  in  a 
speech  that  lasted  almost  an  hour.  She  laid  the 
blame  for  the  misdemeanor  partly  upon  the  people  of 
the  district,  who  had  failed  to  arouse  a  feeling  of  pride 
and  responsibility  in  the  children,  because  they  did  not 
have  it  themselves.  She  showed  them  that  the  law- 
lessness which  had  been  the  shame  of  the  district  was 
the  result  of  carelessness  and  indifference  on  the  part 
of  the  parents,  and  she  drove  home  smartly  the  idea 
that  it  takes  more  than  a  teacher  to  make  a  school. 
She  recommended  that  the  board  order  Henry  Jones 
to  make  good  the  damage  he  had  done,  and  to  promise 
then  and  there,  not  to  her  but  to  all  the  people  of  the 
district,  that  he  would  not  repeat  it.  Henry  Jones' 
father,  relieved  at  this  leniency,  directed  his  son  to  do 
this,  and  he  complied.  Then  the  teacher  spoke  again, 
in  an  appeal  for  support  and  cooperation.  Several 
men  asked  questions,  and  some  objected  because  it 


PUNISHMENT  205 

would  raise  the  taxes  to  carry  out  her  plan.  They 
did  not  carry  it  out  very  fully,  as  it  proved,  for  this 
very  reason.  But  the  ideas  there  brought  to  that 
country  community  for  the  first  time  have  taken  root 
in  the  minds  of  the  people,  and  some  day  they  will 
bear  fruit.  The  teacher,  on  closing  her  school  the 
next  May,  wrote  out  for  her  own  satisfaction  the 
results  that  had  already  come  from  her  course  with 
Henry  Jones.     The  list  read  as  follows: 

1.  It  interested  the  whole  neighborhood  for  once  in  Some 

,,  1       ,  results 

the  school. 

2.  It  shifted  the  responsibility  of  dealing  with  an 
offender  from  the  teacher  to  the  Board.  This  was  a 
good  thing  in  this  case  because: 

(a)  It  awakened  the  Board  to  its  responsibility 
for  the  school. 

(6)  It  reminded  the  people  that  their  elected 
representatives  are  the  proper  school  au- 
thority. 

3.  It  put  the  Jones  family  in  a  himailiated  position 
in  the  community;  and  Henry  will  not  be  allowed  to 
repeat  such  an  offense. 

4.  It  gave  me  a  chance  to  talk  to  the  people  about 
an  improved  school. 

5.  It  helped  make  Henry  a  better  boy. 

(a)  He  was  impressed  by  a  new  idea  —  that 
being  bad  in  school  is  an  offense  against  the 
community,  not  a  successful  attempt  to  out- 
wit the  teacher. 

(b)  The  anxiety  of  the  night  and  day  of  suspense 

seems  to   have  matured   him.     He  is  more 
thoughtful. 


206  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

(c)  His  public  promise  to  do  better  gives  me  a 

firmer  hold  on  him  than  I  could  have  won 
from  a  proved  ability  to  "lick"  him. 

(d)  He  had  to  repair  the  damage  done.  He  has 
experienced  the  weight  of  the  law,  and  has  a 
new  respect  for  it. 

Outgrowing  The  moral  of  this  example  is  that  the  majesty  of  the 
&tti^de°^  state  is  more  impressive  than  the  smart  of  the  rod. 
The  hard  thing  is  to  devise  means  of  giving  the  pupils 
any  conception  of  the  great  power  of  organized  society. 
They  can  see  the  teacher,  who  is  but  one  human  being, 
perhaps  easily  frightened,  weak  and  incompetent; 
but  they  can  not  even  imagine  that  all  the  people  in 
their  community  own  the  public  school  and  mean  that 
it  shall  be  a  success.  If  this  truth  can  be  brought 
forcibly  to  the  pupils,  and  to  the  parents  also,  the 
necessity  for  corporal  punishment  can  thereby  be 
greatly  reduced. 
Tongue-  Corporal  punishment  has  been  done  away  in  some 

^  schools  only  to  give  place  to  a  substitute  far  more 

demoralizing  in  character.  Words  cut  deeper  than 
blows,  and  the  sharp  reproaches  and  heartless  taunts 
heard  in  some  schoolrooms  destroy  friendliness  and 
ambition  far  more  effectively  than  a  severe  whipping. 
There  is  a  kind  of  honor  in  taking  a  merited  punish- 
ment; most  children  suffer  such  without  resentment, 
because  their  own  sense  of  justice  supports  its  infliction. 
But  no  child  endures  an  abusive  harangue  without 
bitter  inward  resistance.  The  teacher  who  descends 
to  the  use  of  diatribes  to  secure  order  has  lowered  his 
dignity  to  the  point  at  which  the  respect  of  pupils 
ceases;    and  his  removal  from  the  teaching  force  is 


PUNISHMENT  207 

the  best  thing  that  could  happen  to  that  school.  One 
sees  this  evil  at  its  worst  in  any  great  school  system 
where  numbers  of  ill-trained  teachers  are  retained 
year  after  year  because  political  conditions  are  such 
that  they  can  not  be  dismissed.  They  are  teachers  for 
whom  the  appalling  problems  of  a  city  schoolroom  offer 
no  solution  so  effective  as  corporal  punishment;  denied 
that  by  strict  rules,  they  take  refuge  in  a  course  of 
diatribe  that  produces  results  as  thorough,  while  re- 
maining within  the  letter  of  the  law.  The  teacher  who 
taunts  pupils  with  their  stupidity  or  their  foreign  extrac- 
tion, who  applies  abusive  terms  to  them,  scars  charac- 
ters in  a  way  that  makes  the  pain  and  humiliation  of 
even  a  severe  whipping,  a  light  thing  in  comparison. 

There  is  a  way  of  talking  to  pupils  who  have  done  The 
wrong,  however,  which  is  much  used  where  formerly  ti^°"* 
corporal  punishment  served,  and  usually  with  good 
results.  This  is  the  kindly  and  serious  discussion  of 
an  offense  and  its  results,  immediate  and  remote; 
followed  by  an  appeal,  or  a  statement  of  the  conditions 
under  which  punishment  is  deferred  or  remitted.  The 
following  order  of  procedure  has  been  found  most 
effective  in  securing  the  reform  of  delinquents  through 
private  talks: 

1.  Secure  the  admission  that  the  accusation  is  a 
true  one.  If  the  pupil  denies  part  of  it,  arrive  at  an 
understanding  as  to  the  extent  of  his  offense.  Be 
satisfied  that  he  is  telling  the  truth,  at  least  as  he  sees 
it,  before  going  farther. 

2.  By  showing  the  consequences  of  such  actions, 
both  to  himself  and  to  others,  secure  a  frank  statement 
from  the  child  that  he  is  wrong. 


208 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


~v 


Good  and 
bad  forms 
of  punish- 
ment 


3.  If  possible,  arouse  in  the  pupil  a  sense  of  remorse 
for  his  offense,  since  this  gives  an  emotional  reen- 
forcement  to  the  resolve  to  do  better.  But  be  very 
careful  that  this  feeHng  is  a  genuine  one,  not  a  pretense 
intended  to  "work"  the  teacher.  The  admission  of 
wrong-doing  is  necessary;  sorrow  for  it  is  of  great 
help,  but  should  be  voluntary,  secured  by  suggestion 
rather  than  requirement. 

4.  Require  now  a  promise  that  the  offense  shall  not 
be  repeated,  and  register  this  promise  in  a  book  kept 
for  the  purpose,  the  promise  signed  and  dated,  and 
witnessed  by  the  teacher. 

Summary 

Threats,  school  work,  detention  during  recreation  or 
rest  periods,  depriving  of  marks  earned  by  good  work, 
personal  indignities,  "saturation,"  and  the  super- 
" appropriate"  penalty,  are  not  helpful  forms  of  punish- 
ment except  in  rare  cases.  Tongue-lashing  is  the 
worst  of  all  punishments  in  its  hardening  and  vitiating 
effects.  All  punishment  should  answer  the  require- 
ments of  justice,  reformation,  and  economy.  Among 
those  which  are  effective  in  gaining  these  ends  are 
reproof,  isolation,  wisely  and  temperately  used ;  reports 
to  parents  and  to  higher  authorities;  the  humiliation 
or  disgrace  of  a  group  of  which  the  offenders  are  mem- 
bers; deprivation  of  privileges,  restitution  where  it  is 
appropriate  and  just,  and  in  extreme  cases,  corporal 
punishment,  suspension  and  expulsion. 

Corporal  punishment  is  to  be  used  for  the  most 
part  with  young  children,  to  whom  it  is  a  form  of 
inhibitory  pain;  and  with  older  children  who  have  not 


PUNISHMENT  209 

advanced  beyond  the  motives  that  normally  operate 
with  undeveloped  characters.  Used  with  discretion 
where  it  is  the  only  effective  means,  it  is  entirely 
justifiable.  But  a  rational  presentation  of  the  nature 
and  effects  of  the  offense,  with  a  parole  system  and  a 
set  of  records  which  act  as  a  check  upon  the  tendency 
to  repeat  it,  will  often  be  as  effective  as  corporal  punish- 
ment even  with  stubborn  delinquents.  The  appeal 
to  ultimate  authority  as  a  support  to  the  local  authority 
of  the  teacher  is  another  useful  and  valuable  substitute 
for  corporal  punishment. 


CHAPTER  XII 

DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES 

Preventive  Devices  Founded  upon  the  Mode 
OF  Absolute  Authority 

The  teacher  who  takes  no  chances  begins  by  plan- 
ning the  Hfe  of  his  school  in  an  orderly  and  detailed 
way.  Before  the  school  begins  he  has  decided  on  the 
Meeting  order  of  entering  and  leaving  the  room,  on  signals  for 
sihiation  ^^^  ^he  movements  of  classes,  on  regulations  for  leaving 
'  \  the  room,  and  for  the  use  of  the  dictionary  and  other 
reference  works,  and  on  the  manner  of  using  and  caring 
for  blackboards  and  other  apparatus.  It  is  especially 
important  that  the  merging  of  exercises  and  the  inter- 
missions between  classes  be  planned  to  go  smoothly 
and  as  quietly  as  possible.  He  goes  farther  than  the 
planning  of  the  .normal  Hfe  of  the  school,  and  decides 
on  a  course  of  action  to  be  followed  instantly  when  the 
usual  offenses  occur,  as  they  are  fairly  sure  to  do. 
This  preconceived  plan  of  action  may  need  to  be 
changed  when  the  moment  comes,  owing  to  unusual 
and  unforeseen  circumstances;  but  if  it  be  reasonable 
and  based  upon  successful  experience,  it  will  hold  in 
all  ordinary  cases.  Even  to  make  a  slight  mistake  in 
the  manner  of  correction  is  less  dangerous  than  to  let 
the  offense  go  uncorrected,  or  to  commit  the  greater 
blunders  that  are  liable  to  occur  when  one  acts  upon 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  211 

the  impulse   of   the  moment.     Quick   action    usually     \ 
prevents  recurrence.     The  more  thoroughly  all  emer- 
gencies are  provided  for,  the  more  sure  is  the  teacher's 
hold  upon  the  situation.     Unless  he  has  an  unusually 
orderly  and  retentive  mind,  he  will  find  it  worth  while 
to  Tvrite  out  both  the  administrative  and  the  corrective 
devices  that  he  proposes  to   use.     These  he  should    J 
keep  to  himself,  however,  never  mentioning  them  to     ^ 
the   school   until   the   occasion   for   their   use   comes. 
Children  respect  a  teacher  who  seems  always  to  know   \l 
just  what  to  do  under  all  circumstances.     The  man 
with  a  plan  is  always  master  of  the  situation.     Those 
people  who  seize  opportunity  are  not  as  a  rule  people 
of  Ughtning-fast  brain  processes,  but  people  who  have 
slowly  and  carefully  worked  out,  ahead  of  the  need  for 
it,  a  plan  of  action  for  each  situation  that  may  arise. 

If  this  part  of  the  teacher's  work  is  thoroughly  done    one  func- 
in  the  lower  grades,  the  good  habits  there  established   ^"^^ 
will  be  so  fixed  by  the  time  the  pupils  reach  the  gram-   primary 
mar  school,  that  the  work  of  rationalization  and  the 
development  and  training  of  new  powers  soon  to  assert 
themselves,  can  go  forward  unimpeded.    New  problems 
arise  constantly,  to  be  sure,  so  that  the  necessity  for 
prevision  is  never  absent;  but  it  may  be  minimized  in 
upper  grades  if  the  primary  teacher  be  thoroughly 
"forewarned  —  forearmed." 

The  disciplinary  value  of  the  fire-drill  may  be  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  this  topic.  The  concen- 
trated activity,  the  mental  alertness  and  self-control 
that  are  developed  in  the  fire-drill  make  it  a  valuable 
exercise,  entirely  apart  from  its  value  as  a  safety  device. 
The  need  of  discipline  is  never  so  great  as  in  time  of 


212 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


The  pupil's 
conception 
of  the 
teacher's 
position 


The 

teacher's 
benevolent 
despotism 


fire,  when  the  value  of  prevision  has  a  vivid  and  im- 
pressive illustration. 

The  idea  of  the  position  and  authority  of  the  teacher 
which  children  acquire  from  their  families  and  asso- 
ciates, is  often  very  crude  and  inadequate.  This  is 
natural  in  a  new  country,  in  which  social  and  official 
classes  and  distinctions  are  still  in  a  state  of  flux. 
Teachers  can  do  much  to  remedy  this  condition,  which 
is  responsible  for  a  poor  spirit  in  many  schools  and  for 
a  variety  of  specific  offenses,  by  clarifying  in  the  minds 
of  the  pupils  their  relations  to  their  teachers.  This 
will  tend  to  build  up  in  the  next  generation  that  solid 
respect  for  the  school  as  a  social  institution,  which 
will  make  its  work  more  effective  than  it  has  been  or 
is  now.  There  should  be  no  foolish  self-deprecation, 
no  self-conscious  timidity,  in  this  process.  The  teacher 
who  is  not  worthy  of  the  finest  respect  has  no  business 
in  the  profession;  the  teacher  who  shrinks  from  the 
delicate  but  necessary  task  of  educating  people  who 
need  it,  to  an  appreciation  of  his  position  and  the 
dignity  of  his  work,  is  begging  the  question  in  just  the 
way  that  will  perpetuate  the  condition  that  we  deplore. 
Frank  talks  with  pupils  on  the  organization,  purpose, 
"backing,"  and  importance  of  the  school  system,  will 
tend  to  increase  the  earnestness  and  sincerity  of  their 
work,  and  eliminate  petty  resistance  to  the  necessary 
routine. 

r  The  ideal  teacher  is  a  benevolent  despot  in  his  school. 
His  authority  should  be  unquestioned,  his  use  of  it 
wise,  helpful,  and  limited.  Children  should  be  encour- 
aged to  help  themselves  and  solve  their  own  problems, 
but  when  a  question  comes  to  the  teacher  for  settle- 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  213 

ment,  the  decision  must  be  carefully  considered  and 
just  enough  to  be  final.  Here  is  one  of  the  places  in 
which  the  thoroughly  trained  teacher  has  an  immense 
advantage  over  the  teacher  of  limited  education. 
Knowledge  does  give  power.  Knowledge  wins  the 
respect  of  children.  Sympathy,  quiet  authority,  and  , 
real  knowledge  that  does  not  need  to  seek  recourse  in 
bluffing,  win  the  hearts  of  pupils. 

An  essential  prerequisite  for  good  order  in  schools  is  Official 
a  friendly  relationship,  or  at  least  an  unquestioning  co-  "^""p^"**®" 
operation,  between  the  teacher  in  charge  and  his  chief. '^ 
It  is  the  business  of  the  teacher  to  carry  out  the  plans 
of  the  principal,  supervisor,  or  superintendent  as  fully 
and  as  conscientiously  as  possible.     If  he  thinks  the 
plan  a  mistaken  one  he  has  every  right  to  object  — • 
stating  his  protest,  not  to  the  pupils,  their  parents,  or 
other  teachers,  but  first  to  the  chief  in  question,  and 
later  if  necessary  to  a  higher  authority  or  to  the  Board 
of  Education.     If  the  objection  is  not  sustained,  the 
teacher  has  the  alternative  of  resigning  or  of  carrying 
out  the  will  of  his  chief.     Unity  and  cooperation  are 
as  necessary  among  the  teachers  of  a  system  as  among 
the  pupils  of  a  room. 

Summary  means  may  be  used  to  put  a  stop  to  cer-  Bad 
tain  bad  influences  which  often  demoralize  a  school-  tha"may'' 
room.     There  are  minor  laws  in  most  states,  for  in-  be  stopped 
stance,  which  make  it  a  serious  offense  for  a  child  to 
enter  a  saloon.     The  law  is  often  badly  enforced,  as 
are  laws  against  the  selling  of  cigarettes  to  minors,  and 
others  of  like  purpose.     A  determined  teacher,  acting 
personally  or  through  officers  of  the  law,  can  usually 
put  a  stop  to  illegal  selling.    A  candy  store  near  a 


sance 


214  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

schoolhouse  is  a  more  serious  problem,  for  there  are 
no  laws  against  the  selling  of  candy,  although  the  adul- 
terated stuff  sold  is  often  a  serious  menace  to  health. 
All  of  these  evils,  with  the  picture-play  theater  and  the 
vaudeville  house  and  the  electric  arcade  and  other 
diversions,  should  be  examined  and  passed  upon  by 
teachers  at  frequent  intervals,  and  all  possible  means 
to  control  or  eliminate  them,  if  harmful,  pressed  into 
service. 

Preventive  Devices  Founded  upon  the  Mode 
OF  Personal  Influence 

Compiai-  The  simplest  way  of  securing  good  behavior  from 

pupils  through  the  use  of  personal  influence,  is  to  ask 
it  as  a  personal  favor.  Pleasing  the  teacher  is  usually 
a  strong  motive  with  very  young  children,  with  foreign 
children  to  whom  the  school  opens  up  a  new  and  won- 
derful world  of  which  "Teacher"  is  the  guardian  angel, 
and  with  all  children  of  an  amiable  and  obliging  tem- 
perament. It  is  not  an  evil  motive,  but  it  becomes 
inadequate  after  a  time,  being  too  narrow  in  its  results 
to  be  depended  upon  as  a  Ufe-motive.  Without  being 
superseded,  it  should  gradually  become  subordinate  to 
higher  principles.  Where  these  higher  principles  fail 
to  function  it  may  still  be  employed,  even  with  High 
School  students,  but  always  with  the  end  in  view  of 
developing  a  broader  basis  than  personal  loyalty  as  an 
actuating  motive.  Pretty  teachers  with  winning  man- 
ners, who  depend  upon  their  personal  charm  to  secure 
results  in  the  schoolroom,  fall  short  of  well-performed 
duty  in  failing  to  generalize  the  willing  response  to 
their  appeal. 


■7C-- 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  215 

The  more  permanently  efifective  use  of  personal  influ-  Clarification 
ence  is  so  to  emotionalize  fine  ideals  that  children  are  emphasis 
impelled  to  adopt  them  into  their  scheme  of  living,  of  ideals 
There  are  two  processes  here  —  first,  the  clarification 
of  the  ideal,  the  mere  explanation  of  the  significance  of 
the  words  that  stand  for  the  idea;    and,  second,  a 
strong  and  varied  emphasis  upon  it,  that  shall  present 
it  so  vividly  and  constantly  as  to  make  a  permanent, 
emotionalized,  conduct-compelling  ideal. 

The  most  successful  way  of  doing  this  is  to  arrange 
a  definite  program,  by  which  one  virtue  after  another 
is  brought  to  the  children's  notice  for  concentrated 
attention.  Sometimes  two  virtues  are  studied  together. 
In  a  public  school  in  Brooklyn  where  this  system  is 
used,  the  following  program  was  used  in  1910-11: 

September  —  Cleanliness  and  Clean  Language. 

October  —  Obedience  and  Self-control. 

November  —  Kindness  and  Gratitude. 

December  —  Courtesy  and  Friendship. 

January  —  Industry  and  Thrift. 

February  —  Patriotism  and  Duty. 

March  —  Honor  and  Loyalty. 

April  —  Honesty  and  Truthfulness. 

May  —  Peace  and  Quietness. 

June  —  Courage  and  Perseverance. 

July  —  Sincerity  and  Temperance. 

August  —  Cheerfulness  and  Love.^ 

*  This  program  is  a  variation  of  that  suggested  by  Miss  Brownlee 
in  a  little  book  describing  the  Brownlee  system.  Copies  of  Miss 
Brownlee's  book,  which  contains  a  more  explicit  description  of  this 
work  than  space  will  here  permit,  can  be  obtained  for  10  cents  of 
The  Holland  Patent  Book  Cover  Co.,  Springfield,  Mass.  Teachers 
will  find  the  book  very  helpful. 


2l6 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


Strengthen- 
ing the 
teacher 


V      / 


The  lesson 
of  the 
parochial 
school 


The  virtues  to  be  studied  are  dwelt  upon  in  short 
periods  of  concentrated  thought,  the  pupils  being  en- 
couraged to  express  their  ideas  about  them.  Stories 
from  their  experiences  or  observation  that  illustrate 
the  motto  of  the  month  are  brought  in ;  the  mottoes  are 
placed  conspicuously  on  the  board  in  each  room  of  a 
school,  and  posted  on  large  sign-boards  in  the  halls. 
Every  means  is  used,  in  fact,  to  emphasize  the  virtue 
under  consideration  without  direct  preaching  on  the 
part  of  the  teachers. 

The  personality  of  the  teacher  is,  after  all,  the  greatest 
factor  in  the  mode  of  control  through  influence.  The 
respect  which  nobiUty  and  sincerity  inspire,  entirely 
aside  from  the  affection  which  springs  from  gratitude 
or  congeniality,  is  among  the  very  strongest  motives 
to  good  conduct.  Colgrove  quotes  from  Baldwin  ^ 
nine  factors  which  go  to  make  up  the  qualifications  of 
a  successful  disciplinarian: 

1.  Bearing,  the  inspiring  factor. 

2.  Tact,  the  managing  factor. 

3.  System,  the  organizing  factor. 

4.  Will  power,  the  controlKng  factor. 

5.  Heart  power,  the  winning  factor. 

6.  Teaching   power,  the  vital  factor. 

7.  Pupil  insight,  the  guiding  factor. 

8.  Culture,  the  commanding  factor. 

9.  Character,  the  upHfting  factor. 

In  connection  with  a  consideration  of  the  teacher's 
personality,  there  is  a  valuable  lesson  to  be  had  from 
the  church  schools  conducted  by  certain  rehgious  sister- 

'  School  Management,  Part  iii,  page  95;  Colgrove,  The  Teacher 
and  the  School,  page  380. 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  217 

hoods.  Children  who  have  been  notoriously  trouble- 
some in  public  schools,  when  transferred  to  the  schools 
conducted  by  the  teaching  orders,  often  become  model 
pupils,  yielding  respectful  and  unquestioning  obedience 
to  the  sisters  in  charge.  Pupils  who  have  attended 
such  schools  attribute  their  attitude  to  the  reverence 
in  which  the  sisters  are  held.  Their  costume  and 
manner  of  living,  suggesting  always  the  fact  that  they 
are  set  apart  from  the  world  and  have  devoted  their 
lives  to  religious  service,  give  them  a  peculiar  sacred- 
ness  in  the  eyes  of  their  pupils.  This  feeling  is  as  a 
rule  fostered  by  all  the  influences  of  environment,  so 
that  to  disobey  a  sister  appears  a  far  more  heinous 
offense  than  to  disobey  any  lay  authority.  So  effective 
is  the  fine  respect  which  training  engenders  for  the 
teaching  nun,  that  it  functions  as  a  deterrent  among 
those  whose  natural  and  acquired  tendencies  are  all 
toward  mischief. 

If  the  secret  of  the  success  of  the  teaching  nun  lies  Respect 
in  the  fine  respect  and  reverence  which  her  calUng  teachers 
evokes,  may  not  the  situation  in  our  public  schools  be 
improved  by  bespeaking  for  the  lay  teacher  a  degree 
of  respect  consonant  with  the  importance  and  sacred- 
ness  of  her  calling,  and  by  insisting  that  these  teachers 
be  such  as  command  the  respect  of  all?  Certainly, 
in  point  of  devotion  to  duty  and  allegiance  to  the  trust 
imposed  in  them,  a  great  throng  of  lay  teachers  fall 
little  if  any  short  of  the  women  who  have  taken  per- 
petual vows.  Yet  parents  fail  grievously  to  instil  into 
their  children  the  idea  that  to  disobey  such  a  woman 
or  to  cause  her  trouble  is  an  impropriety  not  to  be 
dreamed  of.    To  expect  any  such  millennial  change  in 


ai8  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

the  attitude  of  the  public  is  to  engage  in  idle  day- 
dreams, except  as  it  may  be  hoped  for  as  the  result  of 
an  improvement  in  the  teaching  force,  not  beyond  the 
scope  of  present  possibility.  This  is  not  to  say  that 
teachers  should  or  can  ever  command  the  reverence 
which  is  paid  to  the  woman  who  gives  up  her  Hfe  to  a 
distinctly  religious  service.  It  is  simply  to  emphasize 
the  fact  that  an  appreciation  of  the  high  calHng  to 
which  teachers  devote  their  time  deserves,  in  itself,  a 
degree  of  honor  which  is  not  accorded  to  them  at  pres- 
ent; and  to  suggest  that,  were  teachers  as  a  class  as 
conscious  as  they  should  be  of  the  dignity  of  their 
position  and  the  requirements  of  character  and  prepara- 
tion that  their  work  asks  of  them,  the  respect  so  com- 
manded would  go  far  to  solve  the  problems  of  adminis- 
tration that  are  now  so  vexing. 
The  great  The  attitude  of  some  teachers,  usually  young  and 

ratum— the  ill-prepared  ones,  which  resents  the  name  of  "teacher" 
ome*^**'       and  the  connotation    of    the  calling,   deprecates  the 
teaching        value  of  the  service  they  give,  and  is  satisfied  with  the 
standards  of  the  people  with  whom  their  lot  may  be 
cast,  has  its  own  ill  effect  upon  the  standing  and  work 
of  the  school.    Fine  character  in  the  men  and  women 
r\  who  make  our   schools  we   must   have.     Great   en- 
dowments,  fine  equipment,   stately  buildings,  varied 
curriculums,  and  elaborate  organization  are  nothing  if 
culture,  dignity,  and  nobility  do  not  characterize  the 
people  whose   work   is  the   very  heart   of   our   free 
educational  system. 
The  second       "Character"  is  so  general  and  inclusive  a  word  that 
tiai^^       it  includes  many  of  the  requisites  for  teachers;    the 
rest  may  be  included  if  we  add  to  the  first  requirement 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  219 

another,  namely,  that  a  teacher  be  trained  for  his 
work.  Many  good  men  and  women  have  failed  igno- 
miniously,  in  spite  of  the  noblest  traits  of  character, 
because  their  training  had  not  fitted  them  for  the 
special  work  of  education.  Every  kind  of  training  that 
a  teacher  has  is  of  worth  and  use,  directly  or  indirectly, 
in  a  modern  school.  People  are  beginning  to  see  that 
the  great  work  of  bringing  up  children  can  not  be 
intrusted  to  people  who  have  not  studied  the  subject 
specially. 

Between  natural  gift  and  engrafted  skill,  the  teacher  Recipes 
should  embody  in  his  own  personality  the  essentials  l*^^^ 
of  success  in  discipUne,  providing  conditions  are  at  aU 
fair.  A  compilation  of  characteristics  which  make 
almost  certainly  for  failure  in  schoolroom  management 
is  not  hard  to  make;  examples  are  too  plentiful.^  Here 
is  a  list  of  ten  types  of  teachers  who  can  hardly  hope 
to  succeed: 

1.  The  teacher  too  ignorant  and  crude  to  command 
the  respect  of  his  students. 

2.  The  conceited  or  bigoted  teacher,  whose  preten- 
sions or  narrownesses  provoke  their  derision. 

,  3.  The  weak-willed  teacher. 

4.  The  teacher  ignorant  of  working  devices. 

5.  The  teacher  whose  life  outside  the  schoolroom 
does  not  command  the  respect  of  pupils  or  townspeople. 

6.  The  teacher  who  descends  to  the  level  of  his 
pupils,  treating  them  with  easy  levity  and  familiarity; 
and  the  gossip. 

7.  The  taskmaster  and  the  tyrant. 

^  See  Arnold's  classification  of  inefficient  teachers,  in  School  and 
Class  Management,  pp.  129-134. 


The 
voice 


1 


220  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

8.  The  teacher  who  wants,  above  everything  else, 
to  be  popular. 

9.  The  lazy  teacher. 

10.  The  threatener  who  does  not  "make  good." 
In  this  connection  the  teaching  voice  is  important. 
Quiet  manners  in  teachers  are  of  immense  value,  and 
a  low  voice  pays  especially  good  dividends  on  the  in- 
vestment of  care  and  training  that  its  acquiring  means. 
Americans  have  proverbially  unpleasant  voices,  and 
the  strain  of  constant  use  to  which  the  schoolroom  puts 
the  vocal  organs  spoils  many  a  good  one.  Teachers 
who  are  conscious  of  having  the  harsh,  high-pitched 
voice  which  raises  the  nervous  tension  of  the  school- 
room, need  to  take  systematic  steps  to  develop  lower, 
richer,  clearer  tones.  Imitation  will  help  more  in  this 
matter  than  anything  else.  Listen  to  the  rich,  sweet 
voice  of  an  English  woman  of  good  breeding  —  not 
necessarily  of  high  class.  The  beautiful  voices  of  the 
English  and  German  peasants  are  a  revelation  to 
Americans.  Find,  then,  first  of  all,  a  person  who  does 
have  a  good  voice,  and  listen  daily  if  you  possibly  can. 
Notice  the  pitch,  the  intonation,  the  repose,  the  placing 
of  the  voice.  Make  yourself  sensitive  to  tone-quality 
by  observing  the  voices  of  the  people  among  whom 
you  live.  Observe  every  means  of  reminding  yourself 
of  your  effort,  in  order  that  constant  practice  may  aid 
in  the  formation  of  your  new  habit  of  speech.  Apply 
all  the  laws  of  habit-formation,  in  fact.^  The  new 
power  which  a  fine  voice  gives,  together  with  the 
pleasure  of  using  a  voice   that  people  really  enjoy 

^  James,  Principles  of  Psychology,  I,  chapter  iv.     Every  teacher 
should  read  this  chapter  at  least  once  a  year. 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  221 

hearing,  is  more  than  worth  the  trouble  that  it  costs 
to  re-form  the  voice  after  reaching  years  of  maturity. 
And  every  good  voice  is  an  element  in  the  removing 
of  a  national  reproach. 

Preventive  Devices  Founded  upon  the  Mode 
OF  Wholesome  Repletion 

This  method  seeks  to  supply  good  interests  in  such  Crowding 
fulness  that  no  time  or  attention  is  left  for  mischief. 
It  is  founded  upon  the  beUef  that  there  is,  even  for  the 
most  wilful  and  mischievous  child,  some  wholesome 
activity  whose  appeal  is  stronger  than  the  desire  to 
create  a  disturbance  or  satisfy  a  selfish  wish.  The 
means  of  occupying  the  time  of  high-school  pupils 
have  been  enumerated  in  the  discussion  of  this  mode, 
and  need  not  be  repeated  here.  There  are  three  sets 
of  activities  which  should  be  possible  to  school  chil- 
dren, to  fill  the  time  of  three  periods  in  their  day. 
First,  there  should  be  ways  in  which  to  spend  the  time 
left  over  after  lessons  are  prepared,  without  disturbing 
the  school.  Many  bright  children  acquire  lazy  mental 
habits  because  the  preparation-time  allowed  for  aver- 
age pupils  (the  class  from  whose  abiUties  the  school 
takes  its  standards  of  requirements)  is  more  than  they 
need.  They  dawdle  in  preparing  their  lessons  because 
they  do  not  need  to  hurry,  and  because  there  is  no 
incentive  for  concentration  and  close  appUcation.  The 
time  remaining  is  probably  wasted  in  play  that  brings 
no  good  results,  unless  means  for  activities  of  a  helpful 
sort  are  provided.  In  the  lower  grades,  all  forms  of  Redeeming 
busy-work,  including  sand-table  and  clay-box,  may 
keep  little  hands  out  of  mischief.     In  the  upper  grades, 


222  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

a  reading-table  supplied  with  supplementary  reading- 
books,  magazines,  and  pictures  prevents  trouble.  The 
duty  of  the  cleaning-squad  is  to  keep  halls,  steps,  and 
grass-plot  free  from  paper,  and  to  report  to  the  teachers 
and  janitors  spitting,  marking  of  premises,  and  disorder. 
This  squad  may  be  made  up  of  pupils  of  high  standing 
who  have  permission  to  slip  out  of  their  rooms  when- 
ever they  have  finished  their  lessons,  to  attend  to 
their  duties.  In  country  schools,  older  brothers  and 
sisters  may  be  permitted  to  help  the  little  folk  with 
their  writing,  spelling,  or  busy-work,  thus  keeping  both 
employed  while  the  teacher  gives  her  attention  to  the 
recitations  of  the  other  pupils. 
School  In  tiie  Jena  practice  school  there  are  seven  pupil- 

oflScers  in  each  grade,  whose  duties  are  respectively: 

1.  The  care  of  boards  and  sponges. 

2.  Dusting  the  teacher's  table  and  chair. 

3.  Opening  the  windows  at  recess  to  flush  the  room 
with  fresh  air. 

4.  Changing  the  date  on  the  large  calendar-pad. 

5.  Keeping  clean  water  in  jugs  and  glasses. 

6.  Filling  ink-wells. 

7.  Care  of  books  and  note-books  in  the  class-cup- 
board. 

Besides  these  class  ofl&cers,  who  are  chosen  in  order 
in  a  weekly  change,  there  are  others  appointed  for  the 
semester  to  put  away  and  take  out  maps,  rulers,  books, 
and  other  things  not  in  constant  use.^  The  children 
learn  to  take  care  of  valuable  things,  and  are  benefited 
by  the  sobering  effect  of  responsibihty.    The  teacher, 

^  Aus  dem  Pudagogischen  UniversiUUs-Seminar  zu  Jena,  drittes 
Heft,  herausgegeben  von  Professor  Dr.  W.  Rein,  1891,  page  35. 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  223 

moreover,  gains  much  time  otherwise  expended  upon 
mechanical  work  which  is  not  a  means  of  growth  to 
him,  to  put  upon  reading  or  study  which  will  make  his 
work  better.  This  work,  remember,  is  to  be  done  in 
school  hours  as  a  part  of  the  school  work,  and  not  to 
be  taken  from  playtime,  except  perhaps  on  very  rainy 
days,  and  where  there  is  no  roofed  playroom. 

The  attention  of  pupils  is  likewise  to  be  wholesomely  Recreation 
employed  during  recesses,  and  before  and  after  school.  ^®"°  * 
Supervised  play  is  a  comparatively  new  element  in 
American  education,  but  it  bids  fair  to  eliminate  a  great 
deal  of  evil.  The  children  in  many  country  and  village 
schools  simply  do  not  know  how  to  play.  They  stand 
or  sit  around  at  intermissions,  gossiping  and  staring 
idly  at  each  other  or  at  passers-by.  They  need  to  be 
taught  lively  games,  organized  into  teams,  forced 
really  to  play  until  they  form  the  habit  and  do  it  spon- 
taneously. There  are  several  good  books  upon  the 
play  movement,  and  texts  describing  games  and  the 
delightful  folk-dances  which  children  love  and  which 
arouse  an  interest  in  the  people  of  other  lands. 

Third,  the  teacher  may  sometimes  have  some  con-  Home 
trol  of  home  time.  It  is  not  wise  to  attempt  this  *"°® 
unless  it  is  plain  that  conditions  need  bettering,  for 
where  the  home  still  seems  fairly  adequate  for  its  share 
of  child-training  responsibility,  it  should  be  let  alone. 
But  if  children  are  allowed  to  be  upon  the  streets  or  in 
places  of  harmful  amusement,  during  the  evenings,  the 
school  may  lessen  the  evil  by  providing  home  work  and 
recreation  that  will  occupy  the  evenings.  Especially, 
it  is  the  duty  of  school  authorities  to  set  and  preach  a 
standard  of  opportunity  for  boys  and  girls  who  are 


224  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

trying  to  learn  lessons  at  home.  The  secret  of  far  too 
many  failures  is  that  parents  neither  provide  a  separate 
study-room,  nor  see  to  it  that  quiet  reigns  in  the  family 
living-room  during  a  definite  and  strictly  observed  study 
period.  Games,  gossip,  the  visits  of  neighbors,  the  cry- 
ing of  babies,  the  discussion  of  family  problems,  go  on 
unchecked  where  young  people  are  trying  to  force  their 
flighty  attention  to  unfamiliar  subjects.  The  ideal  of 
a  regular  study  hour,  with  enforced  quiet  and  steady 
application,  may  often  be  set  before  parents  with  such 
promise  of  its  good  effects  for  their  children,  that  they 
adopt  it  readily  and  gladly. 

Interest  and  Discipline 

The  All  devices  for  crowding  out  evil  by  occupying  well 

problem  the  recreative  periods  of  school  Hfe,  dwindle  into  com- 
parative insignificance  before  the  great,  fundamental 
problem,  the  greatest  of  all  —  that  of  creating  so  real 
and  so  intense  an  interest  in  the  essential  work  of  the 
school  that  petty  distractions  will  have  no  power  to 
gain  attention.  In  spite  of  the  thousand  new  elements 
in  school  training,  fads  that  pass  or  essentials  whose 
importance  we  are  but  just  beginning  to  realize,  — 
things  illustrative,  cultural,  recreative,  —  there  persists 
always  a  core  of  solid,  fundamental  school  studies 
which  all  sane  teachers  aim  to  keep  dominant  through 
every  temptation  to  sacrifice  them.  They  are  essential 
because  of  the  universality  of  their  need.  All  men  and 
women  need  them;  they  are  the  foundation-require- 
ments. Such  subjects  as  reading,  writing,  necessary 
number,  the  laws  of  health,  the  ability  to  speak  our 
own  language  correctly,  some  knowledge  of  the  history 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  225 

and  geography  of  the  world  and  especially  of  our  own 
country,  and  the  fundamental  principles  of  ethics  — 
these  things  are  the  essentials  in  the  common  schools. 
They  are  to  be  sought  first,  and  other  things  added  to 
them. 

The  "other  things,"  however,  are  not  the  bait  in  a  Essentials 
trap  or  the  chocolate  coating  on  a  bitter  pill.  There 
is  matter  of  intrinsic  interest  in  every  department  of 
knowledge,  and  the  most  essential  things  may  be  made 
really  interesting,  as  well  as  the  many  other  branches 
which  enrich  the  curriculum.  Just  at  the  core  of  posi- 
tive, constructive  good  discipline  lies  the  art  —  it  is  an 
art  —  of  making  the  essential  things,  the  most  neces- 
sary studies,  attractive.  Although  every  study  has  its 
own  intrinsic  interest,  the  appeal  of  some  studies,  such 
as  music,  manual  training  of  all  kinds,  drawing  —  those 
studies  in  which  eye  and  hand  are  actively  engaged  — 
is  more  immediate,  more  enhanced  by  quick  reward, 
than  studies  whose  value  children  can  see  with  difl&culty 
if  at  all.  They  must  accept  these  on  faith;  and  these 
are  usually  lowest  in  easily  aroused  interest.  The 
teacher's  problem  is  to  find  and  show  the  points  of 
appeal,  to  emphasize  positive  incentives,  to  make  his 
pupils  realize  the  desirability  of  the  art  or  the  informa- 
tion for  which  they  are  working.  If  real  interest  can 
be  aroused,  he  knows  that  the  wholesome  pursuit  of 
knowledge  will  crowd  out  evil. 

There   is   a    question-begging   substitute  for  a  real  A  false 
solution  of  the  interest  problem,  which  we  are  very  to'^°° 
liable  to  use  in  these  days  when  so  much  is  done  to  problem 
give  variety  and  pleasure  to  school  life.     This  is  a 
dependence  upon  the  easily  aroused  interest  in  the 


226  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

lighter  studies,  rather  than  sincere  seeking  of  the 
intrinsic  interest  in  the  more  diflScult  subjects.  Chil- 
dren may  be  taught  to  endure  grammar,  arithmetic, 
and  spelling,  for  the  sake  of  the  drawing,  cooking,  or 
bench-work  in  which  they  take  a  ready  delight.  They 
are  hustled  through  the  history  lesson,  which  they  find 
"dry,"  because  it  is  easy  to  hold  their  attention  during 
the  music  lesson.  This  is  wrong.  "This  ought  ye  to 
have  done,  and  not  to  have  left  the  other  undone." 
Each  study  has  its  own  interest,  which  teachers  should 
find  and  demonstrate.  There  are  teachers  who  excuse 
themselves  for  slighting  a  study  because  they  "never 
liked  it  themselves."  This  is  intellectual  cowardice 
and  inexcusable  laziness.  It  is  a  childish  and  narrow 
policy.  A  poorly  taught  child  may  have  an  excuse  for 
disliking  one  or  more  studies,  and  most  people  master 
easiest  those  which  they  like  best;  but  the  teacher, 
unless  a  specialist,  owes  allegiance  to  all  subjects 
included  in  his  own  curriculum.  He  has  no  business 
to  hand  on  his  own  subject  prejudices  to  his  pupils. 
He  is  committing  a  sin  which  will  inevitably  be  reflected 
in  the  spirit  and  work  of  his  school. 
The  real  Lack  of  interest  shows  itself  in  weariness  and  lack 

of  attention.  There  is  a  false  and  a  true  weariness, 
however,  and  the  first  thing  necessary  is  that  the 
teacher  learn  to  distinguish  between  the  two.  True 
weariness  or  fatigue  is  caused  by  the  using  up  of  energy, 
and  comes  when  attention  and  effort  have  been  con- 
centrated upon  work  until  the  child's  resources  are 
exhausted.  There  are  two  common  causes  for  this 
true  fatigue  when  it  occurs  in  school,  both  originating 
and  to  be  corrected  at  home,  if  possible.    The  child 


solution 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  227 

may  be  too  poorly  nourished  to  have  strength  for  a 
reasonable  amount  of  work.  Where  dire  poverty  is 
the  cause,  as  in  large  cities,  the  school  lunch  seems  to 
be  the  only  logical  remedy  for  this  evil  until  economic 
and  social  conditions  change.  A  bowl  of  hot  soup  and 
a  thick  slice  of  bread  may  turn  a  stolid,  weak-willed 
child  into  a  willingly,  brightly  attentive  one.  Where 
malnutrition  comes  from  poorly  selected  and  cooked, 
rather  than  insuflScient  food,  education  of  the  mothers 
is  the  remedy  —  not  very  easily  realized,  to  be  sure. 
Within  another  generation,  however,  when  the  girls 
now  studying  cookery  have  become  the  homemakers, 
this  evil  will  grow  appreciably  less.  The  second  cause 
is  too  heavy  home  work,  or  outside  work  which  keeps 
the  child  up  late  at  night. 

So  much  for  real  fatigue.  But  the  greater  problem  False 
is  the  weariness,  not  of  exhausted  but  of  unapplied  bo^fdness 
resources.  It  is  the  boredness  which  causes  children 
to  throw  aside  their  work  from  sheer  lack  of  interest 
in  it,  and  to  feel  that  the  lack  of  interest  is  a  legitimate 
excuse  for  their  neglect  of  it.  It  is  unfortunate  that 
there  has  grown  up  with  the  Doctrine  of  Interest,  a 
mischievous  heresy  which  accepts  just  this  excuse. 
Teachers  who  allow  such  excuses  to  stand,  do  so  at  a 
sacrifice  of  character  as  well  as  of  work  quality.  All 
good  work  is  interesting.  Find  the  interest,  hunt  it 
out  —  but  if  it  eludes  pursuit,  the  work  is  still  to  be  done. 

When  pupils  are  not  interested,  the  fault  may  be  Why 
their  own  or  the  teacher's.     If  it  be  the  teacher's,  his  J^*"^ 
first  duty  is  to  master  the  art  of  presentation,  to  lay 
the  lures  that  tickle  curiosity,  to  supply  the  means  of 
arousing  interest.     This  involves  the  whole  field  of 


228 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


The 

textbook 

evil 


Equipment 


special  method,  which  of  course  can  not  be  discussed 
here.  Four  causes  of  lack  of  interest,  however,  are  so 
common,  and  consequently  so  influential  in  the  sphere 
of  discipline,  as  to  deserve  mention.  First,  the  pres- 
entation may  not  be  sufficiently  vivid  to  arouse  even  a 
mild  initial  curiosity,  in  which  case  no  child  can  be 
blamed  for  not  wanting  to  pursue  so  unpromising  a 
subject.  The  slavish  use  of  textbooks  is  largely  to 
blame  for  the  inefficiency  of  teachers  in  giving  assign- 
ments and  hearing  recitations,  as  well  as  the  over- 
crowded condition  of  our  schools,  which  forces  many 
good  teachers  to  do  their  work  in  a  mechanical  way. 
American  teachers  do  not  teach.  They  hear  recita- 
tions. Our  texts  are  usually  good,  but  in  the  hands 
of  teachers  who  shift  to  them  the  whole  responsibility 
of  instruction,  they  are  a  source  of  weakness,  not  of 
strength.  Good  texts  can  never  take  the  place  of  good 
teachers.  As  professional  training  increases,  the  evil 
of  textbook  dependence  will  be  reduced.  Probably 
most  teachers  have  remarked  that  if  nine  things  be 
studied  from  a  book  and  a  tenth  told  by  the  teacher, 
the  tenth  fact  is  the  one  that  is  remembered  on  exam- 
ination day  —  or  any  other  day.  The  greater  vivid- 
ness of  viva  voce  presentation  is  the  reason. 

Poor  equipment  is  another  cause  of  poor  interest. 
Geography  lessons  without  maps,  history  lessons  with- 
out pictures,  drawing  lessons  without  variety  of  models, 
all  are  Hable  to  be  dry  and  tedious.  The  improvement 
in  school  work  and  spirit,  lasting  sometimes  for  several 
days,  upon  the  installation  of  a  new  globe  or  dictionary 
or  picture,  has  been  remarked  often.  Not  only  in  the 
lessons  in  which  they  are  used,  but  in  every  phase  of 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES       •  229 

school  life,  is  felt  the  stimulus  of  a  new  incentive  to 
effort. 

The  assignment  m^y  not  be  problematic.  It  may  Assignment 
hold  out  no  lure,  beckon  to  no  new  land,  have  no 
mystery  to  solve,  no  real  difficulty  to  surmount.  Red- 
blooded  children  resent  "an  easy  one,"  or  one  which, 
perhaps  difficult  enough,  offers  no  prize  for  the  seeking. 
The  assignment  is  the  key  to  the  interest  situation, 
because  if  skilfully  made  it  holds  out,  in  the  lesson  to 
be  mastered,  a  puzzle  to  be  solved  or  a  prize  to  be 
won.  It  makes  a  promise  of  something  worth  working 
for,  and  in  motivating  effort  gives  to  it  a  character 
that  makes  it  the  solution,  the  very  best  solution,  to 
the  discipline  question.  But  if  the  assignment  be  a 
dry  and  hopeless  announcement  of  the  pages  in  to- 
morrow's sentence,  there  is  little  or  no  interest  to  ab- 
sorb the  healthy  curiosity  that  children  have.  They 
must  satisfy  it  in  some  other  way,  find  another  exercise 
for  their  energy  than  hunting  up  answers  to  fascinating 
questions. 

Last,  the  work  needs  to  be  correlated  with  other  work,  Correlation 
and  to  take  hold  on  life,  both  in  and  out  of  school,  by 
many  tentacles.    It  must  be  applicable,  timely,  con- 
crete, alive. 

Having  used  the  means  at  his  command  to  make  the 
work  intrinsically  appeaUng,  the  teacher's  duty  to 
interest  is  performed,  and  the  pupil's  begins.  But  the 
teacher's  duty  to  his  pupils  is  not  performed;  it  may 
be  but  just  begun.  For  it  may  be  that  after  the  teacher 
has  done  all  that  time  and  resources  permit,  the  work 
still  remains  uninteresting  to  the  pupils.  The  natural 
flightiness  of  young  and  untrained  minds,  the  narrow 


230 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


Where 
old-fash- 
ioned 
methods 
are  needed 


self-centeredness  of  childhood,  or  the  attitude  of  the 
home  or  the  community  in  which  the  pupil  lives,  may 
prevent  a  response  to  the  lures  to  interest  thrown  out. 
If  this  be  the  case,  and  especially  if  the  child  seeks  to 
excuse  idleness  or  lack  of  preparation  with  "I  just 
can't  seem  to  like  it,"  ^  the  absolute  authority  of  the 
teacher  should  be  brought  into  requisition.  That 
child  should  be  made  to  apply  himself.  There  is  a  for- 
tunate psychological  law  in  accordance  with  which 
interest  is  aroused  automatically  upon  real  application 
to  the  subject,  and  this  interest  grows  until  real  weari- 
ness checks  its  increase.^  He  who  defies  the  lack  of 
interest,  and  pursues  a  subject  in  spite  of  it,  sometimes 
finds  a  wealth  of  interest  as  his  reward,  and  always 
enough  to  repay  the  effort. 

It  is  worth  while  to  teach  children  this  law  in  a 
simple  way,  by  means  of  simple  reminders  upon  appro- 
priate occasions,  or  by  a  motto  kept  always  before 
them.  But  more  important  than  the  incentive  to 
reward  is  the  ideal  of  faithfulness  to  duty  that  may 
be  taught  whenever  lessons  are  distasteful  and  dry, 
as  some  lessons  are  sure  to  be  even  under  the  most 
skilful  teachers.  It  is  good  to  have  our  lines  fall  in 
pleasant  places,  but  whether  they  do  or  not,  the  "next 
thing"  is  to  be  done,  faithfully  and  thoroughly.  Dis- 
like is  a  shameful  excuse  for  failing  to  do  one's  assigned 

1  Kindergarten-trained  children,  upon  entering  the  first  grade, 
are  sometimes  very  hard  to  control,  having  become  used  to  constant 
amusement  and  attractive  activities.  The  newer  kindergarten 
methods  aim  to  overcome  this  artificially  aroused  demand  for 
entertainment. 

*  James,  Psychology  (1910  ed.),  pp.  236  ff.;  Pillsbury,  Attention, 
chap.  20;    OflEner,  Mental  Fatigue,  pp.  62-73. 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  231 

duty.  Good  soldiers  are  faithful,  obedient,  dependable, 
in  every  kind  of  weather,  under  all  circumstances. 
Much,  very  much,  of  sound  old-fashioned  Puritan 
devotion  to  duty  we  need  to  preach,  suggest,  practice.  Plain 
and  illustrate,  if  our  schools  and  our  nation  are  to  ^^^ 
fulfil  their  trust.  The  age  is  one  of  self-indulgence, 
and  a  deplorably  soft  pedagogy  has  exalted  personal 
liking  over  sensible  requirement.  We  have,  however, 
an  immense  advantage  over  our  Puritan  ancestors  in 
that  we  know  the  psychological  laws  which  guarantee 
the  rewards  of  adherence  to  duty.  To  teach  these 
rewards  does  not  lessen  the  strength  of  the  first  admoni- 
tion. It  illustrates  a  moral  law  that  should  be  deep- 
graven  in  the  consciousness  of  all  people  — It  pays  to 
be  good. 

Generalization  and  Summary 

Preventive  devices  may  be  based  upon  any  of  the 
modes  of  school  control.  Those  founded  upon  absolute 
authority  utilize  the  position  and  authority  of  the  school 
and  teacher,  the  organization  of  the  school  system,  and 
the  instinctively  recognized  right  of  age  and  experience 
to  direct  the  young.  In  using  personal  influence  as  a 
mode  of  control,  a  teacher  appeals  to  the  wish  to  please, 
makes  his  wishes  known,  and  uses  the  resources  of  his 
personaUty  in  an  endeavor  to  secure  the  development 
of  his  pupils.  Personal  strength  is  the  great  asset  in 
the  use  of  this  mode,  and  the  two  elements  making 
that  personal  strength  are  character  and  training.  In 
controlling  school  conduct  by  the  mode  of  wholesome 
repletion  we  endeavor  to  occupy  the  time  of  the  pupil 
in  a  healthful  way  during  school  intermissions,  during 


232  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

the  time  of  the  regular  session  after  lessons  are  learned, 
and  occasionally  at  home.  Many  occupations  besides 
regular  lessons  help  to  keep  children  out  of  mischief 
and  afford  valuable  training.  But  the  great  problem 
is  to  find  the  inherent  interest  in  the  essential  work, 
and  so  make  that  truly  the  greatest  thing  in  the  school. 
Four  causes  of  lack  of  interest  are  poor  presentation, 
poor  equipment,  poor  assignment,  and  lack  of  correla- 
tion. The  laws  of  compensation  are  the  teacher's 
great  ally  in  securing  earnest  and  sincere  work. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES    (Continued) 

CoRi^CTivE  Devices  Founded  upon  the  Mode 
OF  Absolute  Authority 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  all  the  devices  of  the  Prevention 
disciplinarian  are  preventive  devices,  since  their  object  ^rrection 
is  to  prevent  either  a  first  offense  or  the  repetition  of 
a  misdeed.  All  the  means  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
chapter  may  be  used  to  correct  bad  habits  or  tenden- 
cies, as  well  as  to  guard  against  their  first  appearance. 
The  present  chapter  will  discuss  some  specific  means 
employed  to  correct  abuses,  where  the  offense  is  either 
serious  in  itself,  or  has  become  so  fixed  that  it  assumes 
the  proportions  of  a  serious  problem.  The  discussion 
is  necessarily  very  limited,  only  the  more  common  and 
troublesome  problems  being  selected  as  examples. 
Brief  suggestions  for  corrective  treatment  are  made 
in  the  enumeration  of  offenses  in  another  chapter,  and 
also  in  the  chapter  on  Punishment. 

Perhaps  no  problem  is  more  nearly  universal  than  Leaving 
that  given  by  pupils  who  leave  the  room  during  school  *^®  "°™ 
hours  too  often  and  stay  too  long.     This  method  has 
been  found  successful  in  a  large  city  school,  where 
careless  management  had  brought  about  an  abuse  of 
the  privilege: 

Time  spent  out  of  the  room  is  called  "Lost  Time," 
and  pupils  are  expected  to  make  it  up.    The  justice 


234 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


The 

absence 

record 


Individual 
cases 


and  reasonableness  of  this  is  explained  to  the  pupils 
by  the  teacher.  A  card  is  kept  in  a  pocket  by  the  door 
used  by  girls  and  boys  respectively  in  entering  or  leav- 
ing the  schoolroom  from  their  cloakrooms.  The  card 
is  printed  at  the  top  in  this  way : 


Name 


Left 


Returned 


Made  Up 


The  date  is  printed  at  the  top  of  the  card,  a  different 
card  being  used  each  day  until  the  evil  is  reduced, 
when  one  card  may  serve  for  several  days.  The  child 
enters  his  name  and  the  exact  time  at  which  he  left 
the  room  and  returned  to  it.  He  may  make  up  the 
time  at  recess  or  after  rchool,  or  even  let  it  go  for  sev- 
eral days  and  make  up  all  he  owes  on  one  evening, 
when  he  wishes  to  stay  and  study;  provided  he  does 
not  let  it  go  for  more  than  one  week  at  a  time.  When 
the  time  is  made  up  the  teacher  checks  off  the  charge. 
The  cards  are  kept  for  reference,  and  sometimes  give  a 
valuable  record.  Small  books  may  be  used  instead  of 
cards.  If  a  pupil  does  not  keep  his  record  honestly, 
he  is  not  allowed  to  leave  the  room  without  explicit 
permission,  and  the  teacher  or  a  monitor  keeps  his 
record  for  him,  which  is  a  great  disgrace. 

The  method  just  described  is  suited  only  to  the 
correction  of  an  habitual  and  widespread  abuse  of  the 
privilege  of  leaving  the  room.  Where  the  evil  is  con- 
fined to  a  few  pupils  in  a  room,  there  should  be  an 
inquiry  as  to  the  cause  of  the  condition,  with  individual 
treatment  for  each  offender.  When  a  child  leaves  the 
room  a  great  deal  he  may  require  medical  attention, 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  235 

or  he  may  find  some  attraction  more  strong  than  the 
schoolroom  work.  Where  the  evil  is  pronounced  there 
is  mischief  afloat,  and  teachers  should  do  some  detective 
work  to  find  what  the  counter-attraction  is.  Strict 
rules,  well  enforced,  against  loitering  in  cloakrooms, 
lavatories,  and  halls,  will  materially  help. 

Whispering  is  an  offense  whose  treatment  must  be  Whispering 
graded  according  to  the  maturity  of  the  offender  and 
his  motives.  The  methods  which  fix  habits  among 
small  children,  curing  the  evil  by  substitution,  will  not 
be  successful  among  older  children,  whose  schoolroom 
conduct  is  controlled  by  the  will  rather  than  by  sug- 
gestion and  imitation.  The  instances  given  in  the  fol- 
lowing pages  illustrate  the  difference  in  the  methods 
used  with  little  and  with  older  children. 

Since  whispering  among  little  children  is  caused 
usually  by  the  excess  of  energy  not  absorbed  in  as- 
signed work,  the  first  remedy  is  to  give  the  whisperer 
enough  work  to  keep  him  busy,  and  the  kind  of  work 
that  will  keep  him  interested.  If  he  still  continues  to 
talk,  his  offense  is  due  to  a  habit  of  aimless  chatter  or 
to  a  deliberate  intention  of  annoying  school  and  teacher. 
In  either  case  isolation  is  the  appropriate  and  effective 
remedy.  Lonely  people  become  silent;  a  persistent 
chatterer  may  be  reduced  to  silence  by  solitary  confine- 
ment. Giving  the  whisperer  a  seat  at  the  back  of  the 
room  or  in  a  cloakroom  or  oflS.ce  (providing,  of  course, 
it  be  warm  and  light)  for  a  sufl&cient  length  of  time 
to  make  a  real  impression,  is  an  effective  method. 
Many  teachers  put  such  a  child  away  from  his  fellows 
for  a  half -day  or  even  a  shorter  period.  Upon  his 
return  he  may  be  a  little  more  careful,  but  he  cannot 


236  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

be  cured.  If  made  to  sit  by  himself  for  a  week,  he 
would  form  a  habit  of  silent  attention  to  business  that 
would,  with  care  on  the  teacher's  part  and  endeavor 
on  his  own,  hold  through  the  renewed  temptation  of 
close  association.  While  isolated  from  other  pupils 
the  teacher  must  take  especial  pains  to  provide  plenty 
of  worth-while  work,  and  adequate  play  with  other 
children  at  recesses,  or  the  last  state  of  that  pupil  may 
be  much  worse  than  the  first. 
When  When  whispering  is  rife  among  practically  all  the 

everyone  Mr  •      1      •        •  •      1  1 

whispers  pupils  of  a  room  isolation  is  not  a  practicable  remedy. 
A  universal  habit  has  the  sanction  of  pubHc  opinion  as 
an  individual's  habit  has  not,  and  is  therefore  more 
diflScult  to  deal  with.  In  the  lower  grades  the  play 
instinct  may  be  utilized  in  the  organization  of  some 
sort  of  competitive  game,  simultaneously  with  the 
forming  of  a  prejudice  against  whispering  as  an  evil 
thing.  The  introduction  of  an  objective  stimulant 
may  be  necessary.  One  teacher  divided  her  school 
into  two  rival  sides  and  promised  a  Saturday  nutting 
party  to  the  side  which  first  achieved  two  successive 
days  without  whispering.  To  avoid  the  watching  that 
usually  destroys  the  good  effect  of  such  contests,  she 
counted  only  such  whispering  as  she  herself  saw, 
marking  the  offense  on  a  score-card  on  the  front  board. 
The  children  became  interested  and  worked  hard.  The 
teacher  had  hoped  that  the  two  sides  would  tie  on  the 
result,  but  one  side  easily  won  the  picnic.  The  win- 
ners voted,  however,  to  invite  their  rivals  if  they  could 
equal  their  own  feat  by  the  end  of  the  week,  and  when 
they  failed  by  two  points,  invited  them  nevertheless, 
stipulating  that  the  losers  were  to  provide  ice-cream 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  237 

for  the  crowd.  This  philanthropic  denouement  largely 
destroyed  the  good  effects  of  the  contest,  by  slurring 
the  advantages  of  earnest  effort.  After  the  picnic  the 
hardest  part  of  the  struggle  came.  With  no  immediate 
reward  in  view,  there  was  a  strong  tendency  to  lapse 
into  the  old  noisy,  careless  habits.  An  honor  roll 
proved  a  weak  incentive,  the  children  asking  for  "some- 
thing real."  The  teacher  had  to  work  hard  to  create 
an  atmosphere  of  condemnation  for  whispering,  of 
approval  for  attention  and  quiet,  of  pride  in  an  orderly 
room.  She  had  to  punish  by  taking  off  a  certain 
amount  from  the  deportment  grade  for  each  offense. 
She  had  to  go  through  the  disciplinary  process  in  all 
its  phases,  in  fact,  to  cure  the  disease.  But  she  had  a 
partly  estabHshed  habit,  a  precedent  of  several  very 
quiet  days,  to  aid  her,  and  decided  that  the  contest 
had  been  a  good  way  of  starting  the  reform. 

A  new  high  school  principal  in  an  Indiana  town  Among 
found  his  assembly  room  demoralized  with  whispering.  ^dents°°^ 
Taking  the  ground  that  whispering  in  a  study  room  is 
an  evil  for  which  there  is  no  reasonable  excuse,  and 
that  it  is  a  source  of  disturbance  serious  enough  to 
warrant  stopping  the  work  which  it  interrupts,  he 
entered  upon  a  campaign  to  eradicate  the  habit.  When 
he  saw  two  people  whispering,  he  left  his  desk  at  the 
front  of  the  room,  went  down  to  the  whisperers,  and 
inquired  the  topic  of  their  conversation.  He  insisted 
that  he  had  a  right  to  know  what  went  on  in  the 
assembly  room  when  he  was  in  charge;  he  insisted 
that  whispering  was  a  serious  offense,  and  should  be 
treated  seriously;  he  insisted  that  an  offender  should 
show  him  cause  for  doing  such  a  thing.     The  result  of 


238  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

finding  himself  the  center  of  so  serious  a  discussion 
was  usually  a  promise  on  the  part  of  the  student  to 
refrain  from  whispering  in  the  future.  A  record  of 
each  case  of  whispering  was  kept  in  the  principal's 
private  discipline  book,  and  after  a  given  number  of 
ofifenses  the  less  tractable  students  found  themselves 
in  danger  of  suspension.  There  were  few  of  these, 
however,  for  the  determination  of  the  principal  to  have 
a  study  room  undisturbed  by  whispering,  his  refusal 
to  take  the  flimsy  excuses  offered,  and  his  frank  empha- 
sis upon  what  he  considered  the  first  requisite  for  a 
successful  administration,  put  a  stop  to  the  evil  of 
whispering  within  the  year.  The  students  who  were 
threatened  with  suspension  complained  of  the  unrea- 
sonable standard  set,  but  the  Board  decided  that  it 
was  not  unreasonable,  and  whispering  practically 
ceased  in  that  high  school. 
^        ^,  Many  teachers  insist  that  the  old  standard  of  abso- 

reasonable  •' 

standard  lutely  no  whispering  is  an  artificial  and  unreasonable 
one.  At  church,  or  at  a  lecture  or  play,  they  say,  no 
one  would  think  of  enforcing  such  a  restriction.  Quiet 
communication  with  regard  to  work,  they  insist,  is  far 
better  than  idleness,  or  than  disturbing  the  teacher's 
work  that  wants  may  be  supplied.  To  this  thoughtful 
people  may  reply  that  church  services,  lectures,  and 
plays  would  be  far  more  successful  if  a  no-whispering 
rule  could  be  strictly  enforced;  and  that  the  disturb- 
ance caused  in  such  places  by  thoughtless  and  ill-bred 
persons  would  be  far  less  if  the  school  standard  could 
be  more  universally  accepted.  However  that  may  be, 
it  is  true  that  refraining  from  whispering  is  no  longer 
regarded  by  teachers  as  an  end,  but  merely  as  a  means 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  239 

to  better  work  and  more  mutual  helpfulness;  that 
artificial  standards  of  behavior  are  constantly  giving 
way  to  more  natural  and  spontaneous  ones.  The  en- 
forcement of  "Library  Rules"  in  many  high  school  and 
grammar  rooms  has  solved  the  problem.  That  is, 
necessary  whispering  is  permitted  in  the  room  if  it 
pertains  to  work  and  disturbs  no  one.  Longer  con- 
ferences, if  necessary,  are  held  in  an  office  or  hall 
adjoining.  These  regulations,  if  explained  clearly, 
appeal  to  the  sense  of  justice  and  self-interest  that 
older  children  usually  have,  and  are  therefore  almost 
self-enforcing. 

The  following  formulation  of  successive  steps  in  the  wiifui 
correction  of  inattention  or  misbehavior  in  class,  is  ^*^ass^°° 
taken  from  the  minute  directions  to  teachers  of  the  exercises 
Jena  practice  school.^     It  is  given  in  its  entirety  for 
the  sake  of  the  careful  grading  which  has  been  observed 
in  the  arrangement  of  the  steps  suggested. 

1.  Stop  the  instruction  until  perfect  quiet  is  restored. 

2.  Tap  upon  the  table. 

3.  Warning  reproof,  made  generally  to  the  class. 

4.  Statement  of  the  penalty  for  continued  inattention. 
At  this  point  the  offenders  have  forfeited  their  right 

to  remain  formally  unnamed,  and  should  be  subjected 
to  the  humiliation  of  public  reproof.  Therefore  the 
next  step  is: 

5.  Speak  the  name  of  the  wrong-doer,  with  a  meas- 
ured but  severe  reproof. 

6.  If  still  offending,  the  pupil  is  told  to  stand  aside 
at  the  back  of  the  room  until  the  close  of  the  class. 

*  Dr,    Rein,    Aus   dem    Pddagogischen     UniversiUUs-Seminar   zu 
Jena,  drittes  Heft,  page  49. 


240  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

7.   Personal  report  to  the  principal. 

American  teachers  would  object  to  the  rule  that 
these  steps  are  to  be  followed  in  rigid  order,  although 
their  logical  arrangement  is  obvious.  Probably  if  per- 
sonal reproof  were  more  used  as  a  last  resort,  and 
every  means  used  to  make  it  a  disgrace,  less  would  be 
required.  In  general,  the  use  of  these  steps  always  in 
the  same  order  is  averse  to  the  elasticity  of  American 
custom  and  American  successful  practice,  while  their 
observance  in  primary  rooms  would  be  a  waste  of 
time,  with  no  psychological  justification.  But  the 
inherent  idea  of  the  comparative  severity  of  the  seven 
means  of  reproof  listed  will  doubtless  be  suggestive  to 
many  teachers. 
wafui  Where  children  are  wilfully  and  deliberately  impu- 

dent, the  most  effective  means  of  reproof  is  to  cut  them 
off  at  once  from  the  privilege  of  further  talking.  If 
they  are  persistent,  the  use  of  physical  force  is  justifi- 
able, and  far  preferable  to  the  evil  caused  by  permitting 
such  an  offense  to  go  on.  This  is,  let  it  be  repeated, 
for  wilful  and  conscious  impudence,  not  the  unconscious 
impudence  caused  by  childish  frankness  or  by  simple 
ill-breeding.  The  impudence  of  defiance  is  one  of  the 
few  offenses  for  which  corporal  punishment,  immediate 
and  public,  is  justifiable,  sometimes  extremely  effica- 
cious. Some  teachers  take  the  ground  that  such 
language  constitutes  a  personal  offense,  for  which  re- 
sentment is  personal  and  justifiable,  as  it  would  be  if 
the  offense  occurred  upon  the  street.  It  is  undeniable 
that  swift  and  summary  justice  probably  makes  the 
most  effective  reply  so  far  as  the  offender  is  concerned, 
and  teaches  a  lesson  that  delayed  justice  might  never 


impudence 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  241 

compass.  Nevertheless  the  danger  of  becoming  very 
angry,  and  of  allowing  the  punishment  to  degenerate 
into  an  act  of  vengeance  for  an  insult,  gives  to  this 
course  an  element  of  risk  to  the  influence  and  standing 
of  the  teacher,  to  say  nothing  of  the  possibiUty  of 
injustice.  The  offender,  it  must  be  remembered,  is  a 
child,  and  is  consequently  not  in  the  same  position  as  a 
man  would  be  who  had  committed  the  same  offense. 
Neither,  however,  is  a  teacher  bound  to  take  from  a 
child  treatment  which  he  would  not  take  from  a  man; 
and  any  school  board  worth  the  name  is  bound  to  sup- 
port the  dignity  of  the  teacher  it  employs  to  the  extent  of 
requiring  respectful  treatment  for  him  on  all  occasions. 

The  Complaint  Book  has  proved  itself  a  very  effective  The 
helper  in  schools  where  discipline  is  dijQ&cult.  In  each  «°°^i*^t 
room  is  kept  a  large  book  something  like  a  ledger,  in 
which  each  pupil  has  an  account.  If  a  pupil  offends, 
the  teacher  is  required  to  make  a  record  in  writing  of 
the  date,  nature  of  the  misdeed,  and  the  means  of 
correction  used.  A  fourth  column  is  left  blank,  for 
use  in  case  the  offense  is  dealt  with  later  by  the  prin- 
cipal, or  further  trouble  comes  of  it.  If  the  child's 
parent  calls  to  inquire  or  complain,  the  complaint 
book  gives  specific  written  evidence  of  the  nature  of 
his  misbehavior;  while  the  teacher,  knowing  that  she 
must  report  exactly  the  disposal  of  each  case,  is  more 
likely  to  be  careful  in  his  government  than  he  would 
be  if  no  record  were  kept.  The  complaint  book  goes 
to  the  office  and  justifies  the  teacher  when  parents 
complain  to  the  principal  of  teachers  who  "have  a 
pick  on"  their  children.  The  fourth  column  contains 
data  of  the  final  disposal  of  the  case,  often  with  a  writ- 


242  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

ten  promise  from  both  pupil  and  parent  that  the  offense 
will  not  be  repeated.  The  whole  system  of  written, 
systematic  records  tends  to  reduce  the  amount  of  bad 
order,  which  careless,  unorganized,  memory-supported 
management  increases. 
The  pupU's  In  connection  with  the  complaint  book,  may  be  men- 
book  tioned  another  which  is  of  immense  help  in  dealing 
wisely  with  children.  This  is  the  pupil's  individual 
record  book.  It  should  be  a  loose-leaf  book  with  a 
strong,  Hght  cover,  preferably  of  paper.  As  used  in 
German  schools  it  contains  an  account  of  the  pupil's 
family,  age,  and  preparation,  outward  appearance, 
measurements,  health,  bearing,  order  in  dress  and  care 
of  school-things,  intellectual  development,  amount  of 
home-work  required,  favorite  interests,  psychological 
peculiarities,  and  special  faults.  It  is  begun  in  the 
first  grade,  and  turned  over  to  the  child's  next  teacher 
upon  promotion,  who  makes  his  entry  in  turn.  If  a 
child  goes  to  another  town,  the  book  is  to  be  sent  to 
the  superintendent  there,  or  directly  to  the  new  teacher, 
who  has  in  it  a  basis  for  intelHgent  work  which  her 
own  efforts,  perhaps,  could  not  give  her  in  a  long  time. 
Such  a  system,  if  followed  carefully,  would  alone  repay 
the  time  and  trouble  it  costs  in  the  saving  of  loss  to 
children  changing  schools.  When  the  child  leaves 
school  the  record  book  shows  in  brief  form  his  whole 
school  career,  and  may  prove  valuable  in  many  ways. 
Our  best  schools  are  rapidly  taking  up  the  matter  of 
records,  while  in  some  they  have  been  kept  for  a  num- 
ber of  years.^ 

*  Elson   and   Bachman,    "School    Records:    Their   Defects   and 
Improvement."     Educational  Review,  March,  1910,  pp.  217  ff. 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  243 

The  complaint  book  is  but  one  phase  of  a  general  The  school 
system  which  provides  for  contingencies  and  has  a  ^^"'^^^ 
prescribed  (but  not  fixed  and  unchangeable)  treatment 
for  all  ordinary  deHnquencies.  The  thoroughly  organ- 
ized school  system  is  usually  an  eflSicient  one,  provided 
organization  is  not  made  an  end  in  itself.  A  series  of 
reports,  a  method  of  supervision,  can  be  devised  which 
will  enable  the  superintendent  of  any  system  of  schools, 
either  rural  or  urban,  to  find  out  about  any  teacher  or 
pupil  in  his  system  at  a  moment's  notice,  and  treat  any 
case  that  may  arise  intelhgently  and  personally.  Few 
cases  in  such  a  system  will  ever  reach  the  superin- 
tendent, most  of  them  being  disposed  of  lower  in  the 
scale  of  the  teaching  ranks.  No  principal  or  superin- 
tendent can  hope  to  do  really  good  work  without  this 
organization.  Many  neglect  it  because  it  is  hard  to 
overcome  the  inertia  of  custom  and  the  self-will  of 
members  of  the  system,  and  also  because  it  requires 
much  time  and  brains  to  formulate  a  good  working 
plan.  Good  organization,  however,  is  second  in  impor- 
tance only  to  a  good  school  spirit,  and  contributes 
much  toward  the  latter. 

The  system,  being  organized,  is  for  the  benefit  of  Working 
the  school.  For  instance,  it  is  usually  a  good  rule  the'offiM 
that  complaints,  visits  from  parents,  or  communica- 
tions from  teachers  to  parents,  should  go  through  the 
principal's  office.  Irate  parents,  bent  on  raising  a  row 
in  the  schoolroom,  can  by  this  means  be  headed  off 
and  made  to  state  their  grievances  at  a  private  con- 
ference, so  saving  the  room  in  question  from  a  demoral- 
izing spectacle.  Notes  to  parents  need  not  be  read 
unless  the  case  is  an  important  one,  but  the  authority 


244  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

of  the  head  of  the  school  is  a  helpful  reenforcement  in 
all  cases;  while  occasionally  a  teacher  is  saved  from  a 
mistake  by  this  regulation.  The  impression  of  support . 
and  soHdarity  which  is  given  by  this  close  cooperation 
between  principal  and  teachers  does  much  to  strengthen 
the  authority  and  influence  of  the  school. 

Rules 
i-„^*  It  was  an  almost  universal  custom  in  the  schools  of 

past 

fifty  years  ago,  or  even  less,  for  the  teacher  to  inaugu- 
rate a  term  of  school  by  reading  a  set  of  rules,  stating 
definitely  what  pupils  might  do,  and  what  they  were 
not  allowed  to  do.  Often  the  penalty  for  breach  of  the 
rules  was  added.  There  are  some  communities  where 
this  custom  became  so  deeply  entrenched  that  it  is 
still  followed,  and  there  are  some  teachers  whose  meth- 
ods follow  those  used  with  them  when  they  were 
children,  who  still  read  such  a  challenge  on  the  first 
;  day  of  school.     The  reading  of  rules,  however,  is  not 

\[  a  part  of  the  discipline  of  modern  education.     It  is 

r^  not  done  in  the  best  schools,  by  the  best  teachers.     It 

is  not  justifiable  from  the  standpoint  of  either  theory 
or  practice,  and  where  pubHc  opinion  asks  it  of  a 
teacher,  public  opinion  should  be  both  defied  and 
educated  until  it  is  in  accord  with  the  tenets  of  good 
educational  practice. 
The  The  most  important  reason  for  the  discontinuing  of 

to  ndes"*  ^^^  °^^  custom  is  that  no  set  of  rules,  however  detailed, 
can  ever  cover  the  ground  of  school  behavior.  A 
pupil  of  ingenious  mind  might  contrive  to  keep  within 
the  letter  of  every  law,  and  still  be  a  disturbing  element 
in  the  school;    and  another  pupil  might  innocently 


Rules  are 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  245 

break  any  number  of  rules,  while  conscientiously  doing 
his  best  to  learn  and  obey.  Much  wrong-doing  is 
relative,  moreover;  it  is  right  for  one  and  wrong  for 
another,  right  at  one  time  and  wrong  at  another,  right 
under  one  set  of  circumstances,  and  a  serious  offense, 
worthy  of  punishment,  under  different  conditions.  A 
third  objection,  and  an  important  one,  is  that  rules 
offer  a  challenge  to  pupils  to  try  their  power  with  the  a  challenge 
teacher's.  They  suggest  an  antagonism  which  may  *°  defiance 
not  be  inherent  in  children's  hearts,  but  which  soon 
becomes  traditional  in  schools  where  opposition  is 
taken  for  granted.  The  child  who  has  not  thought  of 
breaking  a  rule  becomes  obsessed  with  a  desire  to  see 
if  the  teacher  really  means  what  he  says,  when  that 
teacher  has  made  out  a  list  of  forbidden  things.  Far 
better  to  assume  that  pupils  expect  to  do  their  best, 
want  to  help  in  making  the  school  a  success,  and  are 
not  already  planning  mischief.  Lastly,  a  teacher  must 
be  free  to  act  according  to  the  circumstances  attending 
an  offense  when  it  occurs.  He  should  never  weaken 
his  power  by  tying  himself  to  a  prescribed  line  of 
action,  or  place  himself  in  the  position  of  an  idle  threat- 
ener.  by  calling  actions  offenses  which,  when  they 
occur,  may  plainly  be  innocent  of  all  guilt.  On  the 
other  hand,  pupils  who  have  committed  mischief 
which  was  not  specifically  named  in  the  list  of  rules, 
can  never  excuse  themselves  by  pleading  that  they  were 
not  forbidden  to  do  that  special  thing.  A  teacher  who 
uses  no  rules  puts  behavior  on  a  basis  of  judgment  and 
propriety  from  the  beginning,  and  may  demand  judg- 
ment and  propriety  from  his  pupils  consistently,  in  the 
decisions  they  are  thus  forced  to  make  on  matters  of 


246  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

conduct.    In  a  school  without  rules,  the  responsibility 
is  placed  with  the  children,  while  the  power  remains 
with  the  teacher. 
Prevision  This  does  not  mean  that  the  teacher  has  not  care- 

fully considered  what  he  will  do  if  certain  events  occur. 
If  he  thinks  there  is  a  liability  to  misbehavior,  he  must 
have  ready  a  course  of  action,  or  several.  But  he 
should  keep  his  own  counsel,  telling  his  plans  only  to 
the  proper  authorities,  if  to  anyone. 
A  story  James  Whitcomb   Riley   tells   a   story   of    another 

Hoosier  poet,  Leo  Harris,  who  was  once  his  school- 
master, which  illustrates  the  good  effects  of  honoring 
bad  rules  in  the  breach  rather  than  in  the  observance. 
The  school  was  in  a  rural  district  where  old  prejudices 
died  hard,  and  Leo  Harris  was  sorely  tried  between  his 
real  humanity  and  his  desire  to  fulfil  the  demands  of 
the  community  which  he  served. 

Little  Jim  Riley  had  been  bad,  and  was  kept  after 
school  to  be  punished  according  to  rule.  When  he 
and  the  master  were  left  alone,  however,  Mr.  Harris 
seemed  to  be  in  no  haste  to  carry  out  the  letter  of 
the  law.  He  closed  the  door  and  walked  to  his  desk. 
Then  he  sent  Jim  to  the  window,  and  asked  him  if 
anyone  were  in  sight. 
"No,"  said  Jim. 

"Look  again,"  said  the  master.     "Are  you  sure?" 

Jim  looked  again  and  reported  the  coast  quite  clear. 

"Jim,"  said  the  master,  "can  you  keep  a  secret?" 

Jim  assured  the  master  that  he  could.    His  curiosity 

was  aroused  by  these  mysterious  proceedings.     Then, 

after  another  anxious  inquiry  and  another  reassurance, 

the  master  opened  his  great  desk  and  cautiously  drew 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  247 

forth  a  book.  Opening  it,  he  began  to  read.  Little 
James  Riley  listened,  fascinated.  When  it  grew  too 
dark  to  read,  he  begged  the  master  to  tell  him  what 
came  next.     But  the  master  had  another  plan. 

"Jim,  do  you  think  you  could  take  this  book  home  a  conspiracy 
without  letting  anyone  know  that  you  have  it?    And 
could  you  get  it  back  here  into  my  desk  without  letting 
anyone  know  that  I  loaned  it  to  you?"    the  master 
inquired  anxiously. 

James  thought  he  could,  and  he  did.  The  deadly 
sin  of  novel-reading  was  held  in  much  abhorrence  in 
that  community.  He  hid  the  precious  book  in  the 
haymow,  and  read  it  through  eagerly  within  a  few 
days.  Then,  going  early  to  school  one  morning,  he 
slipped  the  forbidden  book  into  Mr.  Harris's  desk. 
No  one  was  the  wiser  save  the  master  and  James,  but 
James  had  had  a  new  vision  of  the  romance  of  life  and 
the  riches  that  he  hidden  between  the  pages  of  books; 
for  the  book  was  Ivanhoe.  He  was  the  everlasting 
friend  of  Leo  Harris,  for  Leo  Harris  had  had  the 
courage  and  wisdom  to  defy  the  conventions  of  his 
world  in  an  effort  to  reach  the  fundamental  need  of  a 
boy. 

Some  rule-ridden  school  systems  are  almost  as  dead-  a  charac- 
ening  in  their  operation  as  were  the  conventions  of  the  some  city 
district  in  which  the  Indiana  poet  lived  in  his  boyhood,  schools 
It  is  the  city  school  system  now,  rather  than  the  country 
district,  in  which  the  teachers  are  bound  fast  to  a  set 
of  hampering  regulations.     Provision  for  emergency, 
and  iron-bound  prescription  for  every  possible  situa- 
tion, are  two  different  things. 


248  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

Generalization  and  Summary 

good  OTder*  '^°  withdraw  privileges  which  are  abused  is  a  logical 
and  just  method  of  dealing  with  ordinary  offenses. 
Mild  means  should  be  used  first,  and  sterner  ones 
with  confirmed  offenders.  Thorough  organization  and 
strictly  kept  records  help  to  secure  good  order.  Set 
rules  are  a  hindrance  rather  than  a  help  in  school 
management. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  (Continued) 

Corrective  Devices  Founded  upon  the  Mode 
OF  Personal  Influence 

No  more  illuminating  and  suggestive  movement  has  Judge 
taken  place  within  the  last  few  years  than  the  estab-  wMk^*^^ 
lishment  of  Juvenile  Courts  all  over  the  country, 
managed  with  a  view  to  the  special  needs  and  peculiar- 
ities of  children  who  are  offenders  against  the  law. 
Judge  Lindsey  of  Denver,  whose  methods  with  boys 
have  furnished  schoolmen  with  much  that  is  helpful 
in  their  own  work,  has  won  his  unprecedented  success 
mainly  through  a  great  sympathy,  directness,  and  devo- 
tion to  those  for  whom  primarily  the  Juvenile  Court  is 
established  —  the  boys  and  girls  themselves.  Using 
the  same  means  of  approach,  and  fired  with  the  same 
keen  sympathy  and  constant  friendliness,  schoolm'en 
and  schoolwomen  have  been  for  years  winning  boys 
and  girls  to  paths  of  work  and  worth.  The  personal 
friendship  of  a  grown  person  means  a  great  deal  to  the 
average  boy  or  girl;  and  the  wishes  of  those  we  know 
and  like  count  for  much  with  all  of  us.  Even  the 
"gang,"  which  is  usually  reinforced  rowdyism  at  its 
worst,  yields  confidence  and  following  to  sincere 
friendly  interest.    The  personal  effort  of  one  who  feels 


250  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

sharply  the  responsibility  of  setting  the  feet  of  the 
young  in  the  right  direction,  of  redeeming  lost  time, 
of  retrieving  sad  mistakes,  must  always  be  the  most 
effective  means  of  correcting  the  blunders  and  wilful- 
ness of  mistaken  and  headstrong  boys  and  girls. 
Reminders  The  weaknesses  of  this  method  of  correcting  evil 
are  its  intermittent  and  temporary  character,  and  the 
fact  that  it  does  not  develop  self-reHance.  No  friend, 
no  matter  how  devoted,  can  always  be  at  hand  to  guide 
and  restrain,  or  to  suggest  the  good  resolution  that  has 
been  made;  while  habit  is  always  present,  and  tempta- 
tion to  an  established  custom  seems  always  on  hand. 
Any  device  which  serves  to  remind  the  pupil  of  the 
effort  which  needs  to  be  so  frequently  renewed,  which 
strengthens  resolution  and  restrains  old  habit,  is  worth 
using.  A  picture  on  the  wall  or  a  motto  may  serve  to 
remind  the  child  who  is  making  an  effort  to  change  his 
ways,  of  the  thing  to  be  done  or  to  be  avoided.  Even 
so  homely  a  reminder  as  a  piece  of  string  tied  to  a 
grimy  forefinger,  has  been  known  to  save  the  day  for 
new  and  good  habits  wfien  old  and  bad  ones  were 
infinitely  easier  and  more  natural.  The  teacher  who 
hopes  to  accompHsh  results,  then,  by  the  use  of  personal 
influence,  does  well  to  provide,  if  possible,  some  means 
of  reminder  for  the  times  when  he  himself  cannot  be 
at  hand,  during  the  first  critical  days  of  change  from 
bad  habits  to  good.  Such  slight  reminders,  also,  being 
less  insistent  than  the  actual  presence  of  the  friend  and 
guide,  effect  a  transition  to  the  ultimate  condition  of 
complete  self-direction.  They  serve  to  call  attention 
to  the  change  to  be  made,  without  usurping  the  place 
of  the  will  in  making  it,  as  the  presence  of  the  teacher, 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  251 

with  his  strength  of  greater  age,  authority  and  per- 
sonal hking,  may  do. 

Boys  and  girls  who  have  offended  to  the  point  of  The  parole 
endangering  their  position  in  the  school,  may  often  be  ^^^  ^™ 
won  to  a  new  care  in  their  behavior  which  will  outlast 
the  necessity  which  gave  it  birth,  by  what  is  usually 
known  as  the  parole  system.  A  boy  who  is  in  danger 
of  suspension  is  allowed  to  keep  his  place  in  his  class, 
not  in  full  and  regular  standing,  but  merely  from  day 
to  day  and  at  his  teacher's  discretion,  during  good 
behavior.  Such  a  trial  is  not  a  right,  for  that  is  for- 
feited by  disorderly  conduct,  but  a  special  favor, 
granted  to  those  who  especially  wish  the  privilege  of 
trying  again,  of  making  another  effort  to  deserve  a 
place  in  the  school  life.  The  terms  by  which  they 
retain  their  standing  in  their  classes  can  be  set  by  the 
teacher  or  principal;  and  as  these  terms  may  include 
the  quality  of  work  required,  earnest  effort  and  applica- 
tion may  be  assured  for  the  time  of  the  trial  at  least. 
If  this  time  be  extended  until  the  new  regime  becomes 
habitual,  and  the  rewards  of  effort  have  acquired  a 
real  value  in  the  child's  mind,  the  method  may  be  said 
to  have  been  successfully  used.  It  is  mentioned  here 
among  the  methods  involving  the  use  of  personal  influ- 
ence, because  its  success  is  so  frequently  dependent 
upon  the  skilful  direction  of  a  trusted  principal  or 
teacher.  Its  appeal  to  honor  and  to  fear,  the  faith 
that  clings  still  to  the  hope  of  "making  good"  after 
the  limits  of  patience  have  been  passed,  and  the  careful 
watching  lest  all  be  lost  at  last,  depend  for  their  efl&cacy 
upon  the  deepest  personal  interest  and  the  greatest 
wisdom  in  administration. 


252 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


Motivating 

good 

conduct 


The 

contagion 
of  success 


Much  can  be  done  by  personal  talks  to  students,  both 
privately  and  publicly,  in  motivating  good  conduct. 
The  incentives  to  right  conduct  may  be  emphasized  by 
imaging  them,  describing  them,  by  any  method  which 
makes  them  real  enough  to  function  as  motives.  Call- 
ing attention  to  those  who  have  made  the  requisite 
effort  and  are  now  enjoying  the  fruits  of  their  labors 
is  a  vivid  and  effective  way  of  emphasizing  the  incen- 
tives to  good  conduct.  Sometimes  a  man  or  woman 
who  has  made  for  himself  an  honored  place  among 
men  can  be  induced  to  tell  his  story  in  a  simple  and 
straightforward  way,  which  without  boasting  or  preach- 
ing drives  home  the  lesson  that  is  needed.  This  sort 
of  talk  is  often  at  the  risk  of  good  results,  however, 
since  self-made  men  are  notoriously  fond  of  emphasiz- 
ing their  own  part  in  their  development,  and  are  also 
incHned  to  be  obvious  in  moral-driving;  two  charac- 
teristics which  the  sophisticated  children  of  to-day 
regard  with  a  contempt  that  is  bound  to  destroy  the 
effect  of  the  most  earnest  talk. 

The  presentation  of  ascertained  facts  regarding  the 
material  rewards  of  good  conduct  and  earnest  effort, 
which  have  been  so  often  and  variously  compiled  of 
late  years,  has  had  doubtless  much  good  result;  al- 
though statistics  often  fail  to  reach  the  pupils  who 
need  them  most,  unless  illustrated  with  concrete  ex- 
amples of  a  nature  to  touch  the  imagination.  The 
simple  expedient  of  showing  what  has  been  done,  what 
is  being  done  daily,  is  the  means  which  reaches  most 
pupils  most  powerfully.  For  this  reason  the  school 
which  is  located  in  a  prosperous  manufacturing,  com- 
mercial, or  agricultural  region  has  a  distinct  advantage. 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  253 

The  sight  of  success  is  inspiriting;  the  atmosphere  of 
success  is  contagious.  The  teacher  who  is  surrounded 
with  successful  enterprise  has  but  to  put  his  pupils 
into  circuit  with  it,  that  the  current  may  vivify  their 
efforts  by  kindling  their  imaginations  and  strengthening 
their  wills.  The  teacher  whose  pupils  live  among  the 
unsuccessful,  whose  parents  are  the  discouraged  poor 
or  the  smug,  satisfied,  and  commonplace  well-to-do, 
has  a  more  difl&cult  task.  It  is  for  him  to  bring  to  his 
pupils  such  men  and  women  as  he  can  induce  to  speak 
to  them  or  be  seen  of  them,  who  have  won  success  in 
any  praiseworthy  degree.  Much  of  this  effort  will  of 
necessity  seem  lost,  but  some  of  it  is  bound  to  meet 
the  need  that  always  exists,  that  lies  fallow  until  it 
is  turned  up  by  some  kindly  seed-sower,  plowing  at 
random,  and  scattering  broadcast. 

The  vital  connection  between  this  stirring-up  of  Reaching 
ambition  and  the  control  of  school  conduct  need  hardly  J^d^^**°° 
be  pointed  out  to  any  teacher  of  experience  and  insight; 
for  such  a  teacher  knows  that  when  once  a  worth-while 
goal  is  clearly  seen  ahead,  earnest  work  and  thought 
take  care  of  conduct.  The  fundamental  problem, 
then,  is  to  arouse  ambition,  to  set  some  goal  that  may 
seem  both  desirable  and  possible,  to  kindle  the  imagina- 
tion with  a  vision  of  the  attainable  and  fire  the  will  to 
secure  the  ends  sought.  School  routine  ceases  to  be 
drudgery  when  it  appears  as  the  means  for  realizing  a 
dear  hope.  A  southern  teacher,  working  in  an  East- 
ern mill  town,  found  among  her  pupils  a  lazy,  backward, 
but  good-natured  colored  boy,  happily  content  to  have 
gained  the  fourth  grade  by  his  fourteenth  year.  His 
mother,  a  cook  in  the  home  of  a  wealthy  family,  had 


254  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

high  hopes  for  her  boy,  whom  she  wished  to  educate 
for  some  distinguished  position  among  his  own  people. 
The  boy  was  satisfied  with  the  three  meals  a  day  and 
warmth  and  comfort  which  his  mother's  work  pro- 
vided, and  made  no  attempt  at  seK-improvement. 
The  case  of       A  whisk-broom  and  some  cheese-cloth  dusters  were 

Sam 

the  beginning  of  Sam's  reformation.  The  teacher  per- 
suaded him  that  no  one  could  clean  blackboards  as  he 
could,  and  that  her  self-respect  depended  upon  the 
thoroughness  with  which  he  brushed  her  suit  before 
she  left  the  schoolhouse  at  night.  When  his  training 
had  somewhat  progressed,  she  told  him  that  she  was 
training  him  to  be  a  sleeping-car  porter.  She  painted 
for  him  a  glowing  mind-picture  of  Sam,  grown  up,  clad 
in  a  resplendent  uniform  of  blue,  with  brass  buttons. 
Sam  responded  most  imperfectly  and  intermittently, 
of  course,  after  the  manner  of  his  race,  but  still  with  an 
encouraging  attempt  at  attaining  the  levels  of  accom- 
plishment of  those  exalted  personages  whose  power  had 
come  to  appeal  to  his  ambition.  He  made  a  sincere  if 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  learn  his  lessons,  and  was  the 
teacher's  right-hand  man  in  all  matters  of  schoolroom 
housekeeping  and  arrangement.  When  last  heard 
from,  he  was  coachman  for  a  physician,  and  had  in 
prospect  an  appointment  as  porter  at  the  first  vacancy. 
The  When  positive  inducements  fail,  there  remain  the 

LiducJ-*        negative  ones,  which  are  administered  by  that  authority 
ments  which  must  assert  itself  where  children  do  not  will 

rightly  to  control  their  own  actions.  The  part  of  per- 
sonal influence  here  may  be  an  important  one.  Quietly 
to  call  attention  to  the  inevitable  punishment  of  wrong- 
doing, not  as  an  imposition  of  authority,  but  as  the 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  255 

working  of  a  universal  law  which  applies  to  all  the 
world;  effectively  to  appeal  to  a  wayward  child  to 
bring  his  behavior  into  line  with  that  of  the  law-abiding 
majority,  to  be  one  with  progress  and  accomplishment, 
requires  much  tact  and  skiU  and  warm,  personal  friend- 
ship. It  is  in  this  kindly  seconding  of  other  means 
of  control,  the  investing  of  every  detail  of  the  school- 
room routine  with  the  aura  of  friendliness  and  sincere 
interest,  that  personal  influence  shows  most  clearly 
and  reaps  greatest  rewards. 

The  personal  influence  of  the  teacher  may  be  used  The 
to  induce  pupils  to  consider  and  evaluate  their  own  ®J^"n^„^ 
behavior.  Arnold  Tompkins,^  many  years  ago,  recom- 
mended the  method  of  setting  a  delinquent  the  problem 
of  formulating  a  reply  to  the  question,  "Why  should  I 
not  whisper?"  or  "Why  should  I  not  fight?"  The 
offending  student  should,  said  Dr.  Tompkins,  be 
excused  from  his  regular  work  until  he  had  answered 
this  and  the  next  question,  which  is,  "What  shall  I 
do  about  my  offense?"  This  throws  the  responsibility 
of  conduct  upon  the  pupil,  and  may  be  used  to  show 
him  his  duty  of  supporting  the  school  and  of  submit- 
ting- his  will  to  the  general  good.  The  method  is,  of 
course,  chiefly  of  use  and  value  in  the  upper  grades 
and  with  high-school  students,  and,  as  a  rule,  is  not 
practicable  with  young  children.  Moreover,  if  the 
simpler  and  more  economical  means  of  habit-forming 
have  been  well  utilized  in  the  lower  grades,  there  will 
be  small  need  of  this  or  other  disciplinary  devices  in 
the  higher  grades.    Nevertheless,  in  the  hand  of  a 

*  Philosophy  of  Teaching,  pp.  323-331. 


256  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

firm   and  skilful  teacher,   this  method  is  immensely 
valuable  with  the  older,  wilful  offender,  for  it  rational- 
izes the  whole  matter  of  conduct  in  a  way  to  apply  the 
principles  of  social  behavior  to  many  situations. 
With  the  In  deaHng  with  the  more  serious  offenses  of  lying, 

™°5®  stealing,  cheating,  and  some  other  sins  which  indicate 

senous  o?  o?  ^ 

offenses  a  fundamental  warp  in  character  and  training,  the 
personal  influence  of  a  trusted  teacher  is  all-powerful. 
To  be  trusted  is  the  greatest  compliment  which  can  be 
paid  a  child.  Teachers  do  well  to  create  and  to  foster 
a  pride  in  being  considered  honorable,  trustworthy. 
When  this  has  been  forfeited,  the  fall  from  that  grace 
should  be  felt  to  be  a  very  great  fall  indeed.  Some 
boys  and  girls  never  realize  the  value  of  a  good  name 
and  the  confidence  of  their  fellows,  until  its  loss  is 
brought  home  to  them  sharply  after  some  offense. 
Every  means  that  is  used  to  emphasize  the  disgrace 
that  has  befallen  the  offender  emphasizes  also  the 
desirability  of  good  standing;  but  care  must  be  taken 
to  stop  short  of  the  impression  that  the  disgrace  is  an 
irretrievable  one,  lest  despair  of  reinstatement  make 
the  problem  a  hopeless  one.  The  teacher  must  make 
it  plain  that  his  trust  is  withdrawn,  and  that  it  can  be 
renewed  only  gradually,  as,  step  by  step,  the  offender 
proves  his  worthiness.  In  this  process,  the  teacher 
stands  as  the  representative  of  all  right-thinking  people, 
and  should  make  this  plain  to  the  pupil,  lest  the  ulti- 
mate value  of  the  teacher's  attitude  be  lost.  This  is 
especially  necessary  because  pupils  who  offend  in  such 
respects  usually  do  so  because  of  a  lack  of  training  in 
ethical  prejudices;  the  attitude  of  right-thinking  people 
has  not  been  the  typical  attitude  of  their  environment. 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  257 

The  goal  of  reinstatement  in  the  trust  of  teacher, 
pupils,  and  all  the  world,  needs  clearly  to  be  set  and 
constantly  to  be  recalled;  and  many  friendly  inquiries 
and  reminders  help  in  the  hard  process  of  reformation. 

While  recognizing  the  fact  that  many  of  their  prob-  Outside  of 
lems  have  their  origin  in  conditions  outside  the  school-  ^'^^°°^ 
room,  many  teachers  are  unwilling  to  assume  the 
needful  responsibility  of  using  their  personal  influence 
in  any  decided  way  to  combat  the  evils  they  see.  Many 
more  who  would  be  wilUng  to  do  this  if  it  were  within 
their  power,  are  so  overburdened  with  the  routine 
duties  of  their  positions  that  to  engage  in  further 
efforts  is  a  physical  impossibility.  Still  others,  seeing 
the  need,  are  distrustful  of  their  own  ability  to  work 
in  a  larger  field  than  that  for  which  they  have  received 
their  training;  or  find  it  impossible  to  Une  up  the  sup- 
port which  the  movement  must  have  to  be  successful.  . 
The  fimdamental  need  in  this  respect,  as  in  others,  is 
of  course  the  need  of  leaders  with  the  requisite  ability 
and  enthusiastic  faith.  Many  a  quiet  schoolma'am, 
engaging  through  sheer  despair  of  finding  a  better 
leader,  in  some  project  of  reform  the  necessity  for 
which  has  lain  heavily  upon  her  soul,  wakes  up  to 
find  herself  a  successful  agent  in  effecting  untold  good. 
Teachers  must  use  their  personal  influence  outside  the 
schoolroom  as  well  as  in  it.  The  unofl&cial  position  of 
a  teacher  outside  his  own  domain  is  often  merely 
nominal;  in  most  American  communities  the  people 
rightly  look  upon  a  teacher  as  a  public  personage 
wherever  he  may  be.  The  teacher  who  takes  an 
active  interest  in  all  that  pertains  to  the  welfare  of 
his  town  or  community,  who  fearlessly  denounces  evil 


258  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

when  occasion  calls  for  such  denunciation,  whose 
standards  of  personal  and  public  honor  are  high, 
whose  taste  sanctions  nothing  but  that  which  is  health- 
ful and  helpful  in  amusements  and  commodities,  is 
ou^k^"*  not  only  taking  the  place  which  his  position  warrants, 
enemies  but  is  adding  to  the  strength  of  the  school  system  a 
hundred  bulwarks  of  unseen  influence.  It  is  the  duty 
of  a  school  superintendent  to  know  as  much  as  he  can 
of  the  picture-shows  and  plays  which  school-children 
attend,  the  literature  sold  to  them  on  newstands,  the 
advertisements  they  read  in  the  local  papers,  and  the 
employment  offered  to  them.  Individual  teachers  can 
furnish  much  of  this  information  to  the  superintendent, 
and  by  cooperation  many  evil  influences  may  be  re- 
moved or  mitigated.  Parents  and  organizations  will 
often  cooperate  if  their  attention  be  called  to  the 
needs  of  the  situation.  As  this  work  usually  devolves 
especially  upon  the  superintendent,  it  will  be  treated 
more  fully  in  the  chapter  on  Supervision;  but  every 
teacher  should  bear  his  share  in  the  exercise  of  that 
personal  influence  which  bears  indirectly,  as  well  as 
that  which  functions  directly,  upon  the  order  and 
spirit  of  his  school. 

Summary 

Personal  influence,  actuated  by  sympathy  and 
friendship,  sees  that  effort  at  reform  is  aided  by  re- 
minders and  restraint  until  habit  and  will  are  strong 
enough  to  assume  the  responsibility  of  conduct.  It 
puts  offenders  upon  their  honor  in  the  use  of  the  parole, 
motivates  the  efforts  at  reform,  pointing  out  both 
positive  and  negative  incentives,  and  leads  children 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  259 

to  evaluate  their  own  conduct  and  to  understand  the 
necessity  of  social  attitudes.  It  guides  those  who  have 
forfeited  self-respect  and  the  confidence  of  others  in 
regaining  what  they  have  lost;  and  aims  to  effect 
wholesome  changes  in  social  ideals  which  are  inade- 
quate, and  social  customs  which  are  degrading  to 
character. 

Disciplinary  Devices  Founded  upon  the  Appeal 
TO  Personal  Interest 

These  devices  are  among  the  oldest  in  use,  because 
the  mode  has  been  used  since  schools  began.  Its  most 
common  form  is  prize-giving  in  all  its  shapes  and  rami- 
fications. This  was  formerly  considered  a  commend- 
able custom,  one  of  the  enlightened  and  inspirational 
methods  of  securing  good  work  —  and  doubtless  it  was, 
when  compared  with  flogging.  Current  educational 
opinion  is  against  it,  however,  as  a  means  of  doubtful 
value.  English  schools  seem  still  to  be  provided  with  A  contrast 
a  full  set  of  prizes  for  everything  in  the  curriculum,  so 
that  one  wonders  if,  a  prize  being  inadvertently  omitted 
for  a  single  subject,  any  special  effort  is  made  to  excel 
in  that  one.  American  schools  are  rarely  afflicted  with 
prize-giving  friends,  the  custom  being  restricted  almost 
entirely  to  private  schools  patterned  more  or  less  after 
European  models.  But  while  formal  prize-giving  is 
not  common  in  our  schools,  the  offering  of  rewards  of 
one  kind  or  another  is  almost  universal,  and  has  a 
strong  bearing  upon  the  order  and  spirit  of  the  school. 

The  question  of  prize-giving  has  long  been  a  favorite  Prize- 
point  of  dispute.  Out  of  all  the  discussion  that  has  ^''^°^ 
gathered  about  it,  the  conclusion  of  the  best  educators 


26o  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

seems  to  be  that  it  is,  on  the  whole,  a  low  incentive  to 
offer  to  a  child,  and  one  not  to  be  used  if  a  higher  one 
will  function.  But,  if  no  other  inducement  is  effective, 
it  is  better  to  offer  the  child  a  prize  than  to  permit  him 
to  fail  of  accomphshment.  Once  estabhshed,  conform- 
ity to  requirement  becomes  easier  and  tends  to  become 
a  habit,  so  that  the  incentive  may  be  withdrawn  or  be 
replaced  by  a  better  one.  To  reach  a  desirable  end 
by  any  means  that  is  not  directly  dishonorable,  is 
better  than  not  to  realize  the  end  at  all.^ 
Incentives  Following  the  classification  already  made,  the  incen- 
tives that  may  be  offered  to  children  are: 

1.  The  negative  one  of  escaping  punishment  or 
disgrace. 

2.  The  gratification  of  interests. 

3.  Personal  gain. 

4.  The  pleasing  or  service  of  one  particular  friend 
or  group  of  friends  (another  form  of  self -pleasing). 

5.  The  pleasing  or  service  of  a  social  group. 

Dr.  Bagley  has  analyzed  the  positive  incentives  as, 
(i)  those  which  appeal  to  the  instinct  of  emulation, 
(2)  those  appeahng  to  the  social  instincts,  and  (3) 
ideals.  Ideals  may  be  either  personal  or  social  in 
nature;  that  is,  they  may  look  toward  the  future  good 
of  the  individual  or  of  the  school  —  or,  perhaps,  of 
some  even  larger  group,  and  in  the  case  of  older  pupils 
of  all  society.     The  personal  gains  which  are  held  out 

*  "  Education  must  manifestly  begin  with  incentives  of  the 
lower  orders  and  pass  to  those  of  the  higher  orders;  but,  even  under 
the  most  favorable  conditions,  this  transition  will  be  but  gradual." 
Bagley,  Classroom  Management,  page  169. 

See  the  discussion  of  prize-giving  in  Sully's  Teacher's  Handbook 
of  Psychology,  pp.  4S3-6o,  566-7. 


nence 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  261 

as  incentives  fall  into  four  classes  —  material  posses- 
sions, personal  preeminence,  privileges  and  immunities 
intrinsically  desirable,  and  the  building  up  of  ability 
and  high  character.  Among  the  material  possessions 
which  are  offered  as  prizes  are  money,  medals  of  in- 
trinsic value,  books,  pictures,  —  and,  in  a  remoter 
sense,  the  higher  earning  capacity  which  is  so  con- 
stantly held  before  High  School  students  as  an  induce- 
ment to  remain  in  school.  These  material  rewards  are 
not  evil  in  themselves,  but  the  emphasis  placed  upon 
them  tends  to  increase  the  materialism  of  the  day, 
which  measures  all  things  by  a  money  standard. 

Personal  preeminence,  which  is  given  by  the  confer-  Preemi- 
ring  of  honors,  the  granting  of  medals  and  prizes  and 
high  grades,  or  places  on  debating  teams  and  the  posi- 
tions of  valedictorian  and  salutatorian  on  the  com- 
mencement program,  is  possible  usually  to  only  a  few 
members  of  the  class,  and  then  because  of  inborn  gifts 
rather  than  praiseworthy  effort.  Most  educators  con- 
demn it  as  an  incentive,  since  manifestly  it  affects  only 
a  small  proportion  of  the  students.  In  the  lower 
grades  this  singling  out  of  the  best  for  special  honor  is 
done  by  giving  badges  or  buttons  of  honor,  writing  the 
name  on  honor  rolls,  placing  little  flags  on  desks,  or 
sending  special  notes  of  commendation  or  congratula- 
tion to  parents.  A  very  effective  method  for  small 
children  is  the  Star  List,  which  is  a  large  card  containing 
the  names  of  all  in  the  class,  with  space  after  each  name 
for  pasting  on  little  gilt  or  silver  or  brightly  colored 
stars,  given  for  each  lesson  well  learned.  Children  count 
their  stars  eagerly,  and  usually  develop  a  healthy  sort  of 
rivalry,  for  all  have  a  chance  to  earn  at  least  a  few  stars. 


262 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


Grades 


Privileges 


Holidays  as 
rewards 


The  grading  system  is  liable  to  degenerate  into  a 
competitive  device  unless  well  administered.  The  cus- 
tom of  ranking  pupils  in  the  order  of  their  relative  aver- 
age grades,  not  so  common  now  as  formerly,  was  a  bad 
practice  because  it  gave  some  pupils  a  seemingly  hope- 
less inferiority.  The  highest  grades  go  inevitably  to 
those  naturally  gifted  with  quick  brains  and  superior 
advantages.  The  truer  conception  of  the  school  com- 
munity, in  which  every  child  may  excel  in  some  thing, 
be  it  merely  the  neatness  with  which  he  attends  to  the 
blackboards  or  the  success  with  which  he  makes  the 
geraniums  bloom,  has  no  expression  in  a  ranked  grading 
system,  which  cannot  take  account  of  all  the  activities 
of  the  school.  It  is  a  good  rule  to  follow,  that  grades 
should  be  given  only  to  the  extent  and  for  the  purpose 
of  showing  children  how  they  stand  in  their  studies, 
and  that  with  regard  to  a  fixed  standard  of  excellence, 
not  relatively  to  each  other. 

Privileges  and  immunities  have  a  certain  logical 
basis,  since  the  excellence  of  pupils  breeds  a  confidence 
that  they  will  use  rightly  the  special  opportunities  given 
them.  In  practice,  however,  this  supposition  does  not 
always  hold  good.  In  one  school,  for  instance,  the 
pupils  who  averaged  90  per  cent  in  their  studies  were 
given  the  freedom  of  the  building  —  the  right  to  go 
where  they  pleased  without  special  permission.  The 
privilege  had  to  be  taken  away  from  them  because 
they  were  soon  found  to  be  abusing  it  by  meeting  in 
the  halls  to  gossip  and  play. 

The  "privilege"  of  a  monthly  half -holiday  for  regu- 
larity of  attendance  and  excellence  of  work  is  used  in 
some  schools,  and  usually  gives  a  great  appearance  of 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  263 

success,  the  children  working  like  well-regulated  beav- 
ers for  the  extra  half-day  of  freedom.  One  is  inclined 
to  wonder  if  the  teachers  who  offer  a  half-day  of  release 
from  their  control  have  a  sense  of  h"umor;  and  if  so, 
why  they  do  not  apply  it  to  the  spectacle  of  setting  up 
this  release  from  school  as  a  reward  for  good  work  in 
school.  The  school  and  the  prison,  surely,  are  not  to 
be  considered  parallel  institutions,  to  be  managed  by 
similar  methods.  A  school  exercise  of  a  different  sort, 
such  as  a  trip  to  a  park  or  museum,  or  to  the  woods, 
or  to  a  factory  or  a  farm,  is  sometimes  offered  as  a 
reward  to  the  pupils  who  have  done  well.  But  to 
put  school  work  upon  such  a  basis  is  liable  to  give 
it  the  wrong  connotation  for  the  pupils,  as  well  as 
for  parents,  too  many  of  whom  regard  school  as  an 
ingenious  device  for  keeping  young  people  within 
doors. 

The  most  common  immunity  is  that  from  examina-  Freedom 
tion,  granted  to  pupils  who  reach  a  certain  grade  in  exam- 
their  daily  recitations.     This  custom  springs  from  the  "^tions 
old,  mistaken  conception  of  the  examination  as  an 
inquisition  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  a  sort  of  beUiger- 
ent  challenge  to  the  pupil  to  prove  that  he  is  capable 
of  going  on  with  the  work.     The  true  idea  of  examina- 
tions is  that  they  are  for  the  good  of  the  pupil  rather 
than  for  the  teacher.     They  are  primarily  a  means  of 
showing  the  pupil  where  he  stands.     The  teacher  wants 
to  know  this  only  that  he  may  be  more  helpful,  but  the 
pupil's  interest  is  more  fundamental,  for  his  own  prog- 
ress depends  largely  upon  the  foundation  already  laid. 
With  older  pupils  examinations  should  be  welcome 
opportimities  to  review,  organize,  and  test.    In  every 


264 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


Self-im- 
provement 


Acquisi- 
tiveness 


grade  where  they  have  a  place  at  all,  examinations 
should  be  considered  part  of  the  regular  work,  and 
therefore  should  be  done  by  all. 

Last,  and  by  far  most  important  of  the  forms  of 
self-interest  which  may  function  to  control  and  improve 
conduct,  is  the  incentive  of  self-improvement.  Self- 
improvement  has  two  phases,  the  training  of  power  to 
do,  and  the  training  of  power  to  be;  the  gaining  of 
ability  and  skill,  and  the  development  of  nobility  of 
character.  The  first  of  these  two  is  a  matter  of  intel- 
lect, the  second  of  emotion,  guided  by  ideals;  and  both 
must  be  vitalized  by  the  will.  Teachers  should  begin 
to  urge  the  two-fold  self-culture  from  the  child's  first 
entrance  into  school  life.  Unless  allowed  to  degenerate 
into  preachiness  or  nagging,  children  welcome  this  per- 
sonal note  in  the  teacher's  anxiety  for  their  advance- 
ment, and  respond  to  it  eagerly  and  with  gratitude. 
It  recognizes  the  most  immediate  end  of  education  for 
them,  which  is  their  improvement,  their  gain  in  power 
to  get  what  they  want  and  to  be  what  they  admire. 

The  power  to  win  what  seems  desirable  is  a  more 
elementary  and  natural  incentive  than  the  power  to 
realize  an  ideal  in  character.  It  is  a  ready-made, 
instinctive  incentive.  Teachers  use  it  constantly. 
They  urge  pupils  to  write  neatly,  that  they  may  not 
be  prevented  from  obtaining  a  good  position  by  poor 
penmanship.  They  urge  them  to  speak  correctly  that 
they  may  be  able  to  gain  their  ends  by  persuasion. 
They  suggest  that  a  good  mathematician  will  probably 
become  a  good  business  man,  and  that  nature-study 
leads  to  profitable  agriculture.  Music  and  manners 
and  a  well-stored  mind  are  helpful  in  social  life;  indus- 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  265 

try  and  neatness,  everywhere.  It  is  right  to  urge  these 
incentives,  for  they  illustrate  a  great  truth  that  cannot 
be  over-emphasized,  namely,  that  all  good  things  must 
be  paid  for,  earned,  compensated  for,  soon  or  late. 
That  effort  does  bring  reward,  even  when  the  immedi- 
ate object  is  not  obtained,  is  the  belief  that  takes  form 
under  these  constant  suggestions. 

The  second  part  of  the  child's  development  should  Character- 
parallel  the  first.  He  is  unconsciously  forming  char- 
acter in  every  adjustment  to  the  world  about  him, 
but  definiteness  and  force  are  gained  by  sometimes 
making  the  process  conscious.  There  is  no  harm,  for 
instance,  in  asking  the  children,  after  telling  them  the 
story  of  the  boy  Lincoln  reading  by  the  light  of  the 
winter  fire,  what  they  think  of  such  a  habit,  what 
Lincoln  gained  by  it,  and  if  they  would  have  done 
the  same  thing.  Children  need  to  be  encouraged  to 
formulate  their  ideals  by  writing  or  describing  orally 
their  ideal  man  and  woman,  boy  and  girl.  They  are 
didactic  creatures,  deb'ghting  in  the  clear  statement 
of  truths  that  have  grown  trite  to  their  elders.  Con- 
sequently they  revel  in  the  opportunity  to  describe 
their  ideal  characters,  and  produce  documents  that 
are  invaluable  to  their  teachers.  One  very  successful 
teacher  always  gives  this  exercise  at  the  beginning  of 
each  new  school  year,  to  enable  her  to  understand  the 
children  given  into  her  care.  If  she  finds  certain 
ideals  or  standards  lacking,  she  tells  her  classes  stories 
of  men  or  women  whose  lives  illustrate  the  special 
quality  that  needs  emphasis.  At  the  end  of  the  year 
the  exercise  is  repeated,  and  the  comparison  of  the 
two  papers  gives  an  index  to  character-growth,  or  at 


and  his 
temper 


266  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

least  to  the  formation  of  ideals,  that  has  taken  place 
during   the  year.     A  regular  program  of  ethical  in- 
struction is  used  in  this  school,  it  should  be  added, 
beside  the  hero-stories. 
Ernst  Sometimes  self-revelation  gives  a  startling  impetus 

to  endeavor.  An  incident  which  happened  in  a  Cin- 
cinnati school  illustrates  the  influence  which  wise  guid- 
ance and  treatment  may  have  in  securing  good  conduct 
from  motives  of  proper  self-interest.  A  boy  who  had 
the  misfortune  to  be  possessed  of  an  ungovernable 
temper  was  kept  after  school  to  finish  some  work 
which  he  had  willfully  neglected  during  the  regular 
session.  Sitting  at  his  desk,  he  suddenly  flung  papers, 
books  and  pencils  in  all  directions  and  cried  out,  "I 
can't  stay,  I  tell  you!  I  have  to  go  to  the  dentist's!" 
His  teacher  knew  that  the  engagement  at  the  den- 
tist's was  for  the  next  afternoon.  Nevertheless,  she 
said,  looking  steadily  at  the  boy,  "Ernst,  you  are 
excused."  Astonished  and  somewhat  frightened  at 
his  own  outburst,  he  left.  The  next  morning  he  came 
in  with  his  line,  but  was  met  at  the  door  by  the  teacher, 
who  directed  him  with  a  gesture  to  stand  aside  until 
she  could  speak  to  him.  When  the  other  children 
had  passed  in,  she  turned  to  Ernst  standing  in  the 
corridor,  and  looked  at  him  steadily.  The  boy  flushed 
quickly,  remembering  the  scene  of  the  night  before; 
then  said,  "I'm  not  going  to  act  hke  that  again." 

"But  I'm  afraid  to  have  you  in  the  school,"  said 
his  teacher.  "You  were  insane  yesterday.  You  were 
blind  with  fury,  and  might  in  another  moment  have 
maimed  or  even  killed  some  one;  you  might  do  another 
pupil  a  serious  injury.    A  schoolroom  is  no  place  for 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  267 

people  who  may  at  any  time  lose  their  senses  with 
anger.  Such  people,  I  fear,  belong  in  another  kind 
of  institution." 

The  boy  began  to  realize  the  seriousness  of  his 
offense,  in  its  ultimate  as  well  as  its  immediate  effects. 
"Oh,  if  you'll  only  let  me  come  back,  I'll  never  do 
that  again,"  he  said.  "Please  try  me.  I'll  try  to 
master  my  temper  if  you'll  just  let  me  try." 

The  trial  was,  of  course,  allowed,  and  Ernst  has 
justified  it  by  gaining  a  steady  control  over  himself. 

Summary 
Prize-giving  is  an  incentive  of  doubtful  merit,  not  incentives 

.  ,  .  ,  .   ,  .  .  ,    functioning 

to  be  used  if  others  appeahng  to  higher  motives  will  in 
function.  To  develop  high  character  and  great  power,  *^"^  ® 
and  to  serve  others  well,  are  incentives  for  effort  that 
should  be  encouraged.  The  relative  ranking  of  the 
students  of  a  class  gains  no  good  end.  Examinations 
are  not  a  punishment,  but  an  occasion  for  organization 
and  test,  of  which  all  students  should  avail  themselves; 
and  holidays  as  rewards  for  good  conduct  are  scarcely 
logical.  Self-improvement,  which  is  the  highest  form 
of  self-seeking,  has  two  phases,  the  development  of 
character  and  the  development  of  ability.  Teachers 
should  test  the  ideals  of  their  pupils  at  intervals,  to 
ascertain  in  what  direction  they  need  especial  help 
and  guidance. 


CHAPTER  XV 
DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES   (Continued) 

Devices  Founded  upon  the  Mode  of  Conscious 
Social  Appeal 

Loyalty  to         THOSE  who   object  to   the  deliberate   development 
room  of  class  or  school  spirit  overlook  the  fact  that  group- 

loyalty  is  a  necessary  step  toward  a  still  more  liberal 
social  loyalty.  From  himself  to  his  family,  to  his  own 
group  of  playmates,  to  the  class,  school,  and  team  to 
which  he  belongs,  to  his  town,  his  state,  his  country, 
is  extended  the  ever-widening  coalition  of  interest  of 
the  developing  child;  and  if  the  process  be  not  arrested, 
it  will  go  until  the  mature  man  or  woman  feels  himself 
in  fraternal  relations  with  all  people  of  all  countries. 
In  the  school,  then,  the  era  of  class  and  school  loyalty 
has  a  distinct  and  rightful  place,  and  as  an  aid  to  good 
order  and  good  spirits,  if  wisely  guided  and  managed, 
it  is  very  important.  Even  rivalry,  if  it  be  group- 
rivalry  and  not  personal  rivalry,  may  be  used  for  good. 
It  is  as  Utopian  a  dream  to  eliminate  rivalry  from  a 
wide-awake  school  as  to  eliminate  it  from  life  outside 
the  school;  and  if  it  were  to  be  done  away  with  we 
should  lose  one  of  the  most  effective  means  of  teaching 
courtesy,  self-control,  consideration,  and  justice.  The 
selfishness,  brutality,  and  vindictiveness  sometimes 
charged  to  rivalry  are  results  of  the  neglect  to  teach 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  269 

the  customs  and  standards  of  true  sportsmanship,  the 
principles  that  govern  well-conducted  contests  of  any 
kind,  the  tenets  of  fair  play.  There  will  always  be 
rivalry  in  the  world  while  the  world  continues  to  pro- 
gress, and  to  attempt  to  conduct  a  school  entirely  free 
from  this  natural,  instinctive  feature  is  to  attempt  a 
mawkish  travesty  on  human  nature.  The  problem 
is  not  one  of  eliminating  a  fundamental  element  in 
conduct,  but  of  controlling  it  for  good  ends,  of  using  it 
in  the  best  way. 

The  explanation  of  the  evil  effects  of  class  and  The 
school  loyalty  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  pupils  do  not  oMoyaity 
see  their  room  or  class  as  a  part  of  an  organic  whole, 
but  merely  as  the  isolated  rival  of  one  other  organiza- 
tion. If  the  place  of  the  unit  concerned,  in  the  whole 
fabric  of  the  school  system,  be  made  conscious  to  the 
pupils,  and  the  end  of  the  effort  be  to  improve  that 
whole  system  through  a  contribution  which  all  hope 
may  be  the  best  and  greatest  of  any  made,  the  social- 
izing influence  will  be  far  greater  than  the  indi- 
vidualizing influence.  The  immediate  aim  of  making 
the  best  showing  becomes  secondary  to  the  ultimate 
aim  of  improving  the  big  unit,  of  pride  in  the  good 
accomplished  for  all.  The  process  of  improving 
conditions  in  a  school  badly  demoralized  by  an  almost 
universal  habit  of  tardiness,  may  be  taken  as  an  ex- 
ample. The  new  principal  who  found  things  in  bad 
shape  and  resolved  to  effect  a  reformation,  instituted 
a  contest  between  the  different  rooms  with  the  aim  of 
establishing  a  new  record  and  a  new  set  of  habits  with 
regard  to  punctuality.  A  pennant  was  hung  outside 
each  room,  which  was  unfurled  if  there  had  been  no 


270 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


The 

pennant 

method 


Class  or 

school 

character 


tardiness  that  day,  but  rolled  up  if  one  person  had 
spoiled  the  record.  This  was  a  direct  appeal  to  room- 
loyalty,  and  although  no  word  of  beating  the  record 
of  other  rooms  was  said  by  teachers  or  principal,  the 
pupils  soon  began  to  point  to  the  full-flung  pennants 
of  their  own  rooms  with  much  pride,  and  to  boast  of 
belonging  to  a  grade  which  had  a  clear  record.  The 
ideal  of  a  whole  school  with  a  good  record,  however, 
was  kept  before  the  pupils.  Big  brothers  and  sisters  in 
the  upper  grades  were  urged  to  help  the  younger  mem- 
bers of  their  families  to  reach  school  on  time;  and  the 
teachers  saw  to  it  that  all  jeering  and  baiting  of  the 
unfortunates  who  "spoiled  the  record"  was  nipped  in 
the  bud.  The  effect  of  the  effort  as  a  whole  was  to 
develop,  besides  the  primary  object  of  greater  punctual- 
ity, a  feeling  of  solidarity  in  the  whole  school,  of  loyalty 
to  classes  and  rooms  and  to  the  school  at  large;  a 
feeling  which  the  editor  of  the  local  paper  still  further 
generalized  by  an  editorial  in  which  he  mentioned  the 
school  record  as  a  matter  for  town  pride. 

The  individuality  of  school  units  is  a  point  that 
may  be  skilfully  emphasized  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  of 
material  help  in  improving  conditions.  In  some  New 
York  schools,  for  example,  the  classes  are  named  after 
some  great  man  whose  character  or  deeds  the  class 
may  wish  to  honor  or  to  imitate.  A  feeling  of  loyalty 
to  a  common  standard  grows  out  of  the  constant 
emphasis  upon  the  character  of  the  class  hero.  Pride 
in  an  untarnished  class  record,  not  only  as  to  punc- 
tuality, but  touching  the  more  important  virtues  of 
truth,  honesty,  industry,  and  obedience,  will  sometimes 
hold  the  individual  pupil  to  personal  integrity  until 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  271 

the  standard,  upheld  at  first  through  no  intrinsic 
regard  for  right,  becomes  by  habit  a  part  of  his  personal 
creed  and  custom.  Wherever  and  however  the  desir- 
ability of  ethical  action  can  be  emphasized,  in  whatever 
way  the  interest  of  others  may  become  more  important 
than  the  interest  of  self,  there  good  has  been  done. 

Of  late  years  the  ideal  of  social  motive  has  been  so  The 
freely  associated  with  the  ideal  of  self-activity  and  of  u^cation 
self-government,  that  in  the  minds  of  many  it  is  identi- 
cal. These  people  think  it  impossible  for  children  to 
act  for  the  good  of  all  without  to  some  extent  fixing 
the  conditions  under  which  they  shall  live,  and  actively 
participating  in  the  management  of  their  own  affairs. 
An  analysis  of  the  different  forms  of  pure  or  partial 
pupil-government  has  been  given  in  the  chapter  on 
the  Mode  of  Social  Appeal.  In  this  place  we  wish  to 
consider  the  value  of  such  methods  as  devices  for  the 
improving  of  the  order  of  the  school.  They  have 
been  used  with  marked  success  in  a  number  of  instances, 
and  this  success  has  led  many  to  wonder  if  the  old 
methods  are  not  fundamentally  wrong.  A  close  study 
of  the  elements  in  the  success  of  these  plans  where 
they  have  justified  their  realization,  however,  leads  one 
to  the  conclusion  that  they  are  due  in  every  case  to 
the  dominating  personality  of  a  strong  leader,  rather 
than  to  the  intrinsic  merits  of  the  system.  Where 
teachers  are  not  actively  in  sympathy  with  the  experi- 
ment, it  fails.^  The  success  attained  is  a  proof  that  a 
leader  of  magnetic  power  can  accomplish  remarkable 

*  See  the  very  judicious  summary  of  these  plans  by  Walter  L. 
Philips,  in  Education  for  May,  1902;  and  especially,  for  this  point, 
page  547. 


272  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

results  by  the  use  of  methods  that  under  ordinary 
circumstances  are  doomed  to  sure  failure.  It  is  not 
claimed  that  these  systems  have  not  done  great  good; 
but  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  energy  used  to  bring 
about  the  results  attained,  if  used  in  methods  more 
simple  and  more  suited  to  the  ends  to  be  gained,  would 
have  accomplished  even  more,  without  setting  the 
dangerous  example  of  a  success  in  which  the  most 
potent  element  is  denied  and  covered  up. 
PupU-  In  the  first  place,  it  is  wise  to  recognize  a  certain 

fs'noTseH-*  looseness  of  terminology  which  has  largely  escaped 
government  notice.^  Such  systems  are  called  self-government 
systems,  whereas  they  really  furnish  so  elaborate  a 
scheme  of  pupil-government  that,  between  the  com- 
prehensive legislation  and  the  tendency  of  eager  youth 
to  find  something  to  do,  they  give  the  individual  pupils 
very  little  chance  to  govern  themselves.  They  are 
mutual-government  schemes,  but  afford  few  oppor- 
tunities for  self-government.  The  pupils  are  put 
upon  their  honor  to  report  misdeeds  that  come  to 
their  notice,  and  unless  they  are  deterred  by  motives 
of  friendship,  fear,  or  indolence,  they  do  so.  The 
whole  scheme  is  but  a  thoroughly-extended  monitorial 
system.^  The  principle  upon  which  it  is  founded  is  a 
sound  one,  in  that  it  is  the  duty  of  all  to  uphold  the 

^  But  see  Perry,  Management  of  a  City  School,  page  286. 

^  One  must,  however,  distinguish  two  classes  of  monitors,  or 
rather  two  classes  of  duties  assigned  to  them.  The  monitor  whose 
work  it  is  to  watch  other  pupils  and  report  infractions  of  rules, 
becomes  often  a  self-satisfied  prig  or  a  tale-bearing  spy.  The 
monitor  who  attends  to  various  school  duties  —  the  school-officers, 
as  the  Germans  call  them  —  learn  habits  of  responsible  care  and 
industry,  and  have  a  proprietary  pride  in  the  neatness  and  order  of 
their  rooms  as  a  result  of  their  appointment  or  election. 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  273 

integrity  of  the  system  of  government  under  which 
they  live.  But  to  go  one  step  farther,  and  make  all 
responsible  for  that  integrity,  not  upon  occasion  and 
at  the  request  of  the  authorities,  but  constantly,  in 
the  teacher's  place,  is  to  confuse  the  positions  of  teacher 
and  pupil  and  to  give  to  children  a  work  for  which  they 
are  not  yet  fitted.  The  systems  have  the  disadvantages 
of  the  older  monitorial  schemes.  Their  advocates  Placing 
make  much,  for  instance,  of  the  fact  that  responsibility  bli^*^"' 
is  shifted  from  the  teacher  to  the  pupils.  But  is  not 
the  teacher  the  person  in  whom  the  public  reposes 
responsibility  for  the  school?  Has  he  not  been  pre- 
pared and  educated  for  that  very  purpose?  Is  he  not, 
though  never  so  poorly  prepared,  better  trained  to 
assume  responsibility  than  his  charges?  Why  should 
the  teacher  wish,  or  even  be  willing  to  shift  his  respon- 
sibility? And  can  he  do  so,  even  if  he  wishes?  The 
teacher  under  such  a  system  may  hold  the  pupils 
responsible  for  good  order  on  the  playground,  and 
forego  all  supervision  during  recesses.  But  if  one  boy 
in  a  fit  of  anger  attack  another  and  injure  his  eye,  the 
parents  of  the  second  boy  will  not  exonerate  the  teacher 
from  blame  because  the  boys  are  supposed  to  be  self- 
governing.  Law  and  public  opinion  hold  one  person 
responsible  for  the  school  —  the  teacher.  In  a  last 
analysis,  then,  the  system  will  not  hold;  and  are  the 
results  worth  the  pretense? 

Moreover,   childhood   is   the   period   during   which  is  it  wise 
human  beings  are  learning  to  control  themselves,  and  maturity? 
self-control  should,  by  every  law  of  fitness,  precede 
the   exercise   of   authority   over   others.     The   school 
democracy,  in  fact,  commits  the  essential  fallacy  of 


274  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

all  pure  democracies  —  it  assumes  an  equality  which 
does  not  exist.  There  are  two  quahfications,  for 
instance,  which  we  demand  shall  be  fulfilled  by  those 
who  wish  a  voice  in  our  nation's  government.  Simply 
to  vote  requires  that  the  age  of  21  shall  have  been 
reached;  that  is,  the  mere  exercise  of  judgment  demands 
a  certain  degree  of  maturity.  If  a  man  wish  to  hold 
office,  good  citizenship  demands  that  he  shall  have 
shown  abiUty  in  some  way.  He  should  be  a  good 
business  man,  or  a  successful  practitioner  if  in  a  profes- 
sion. One  other  claim  to  consideration  counts  for  a 
great  deal,  namely  length  and  faithfulness  of  public 
service.  Now  children  have  none  of  these  requisites 
for  authority  in  a  qualif3dng  degree,  and  many  think 
that  people  who  have  neither  maturity,  proved  ability, 
nor  experience  had  better  learn  to  work  under  direction 
than  to  try  to  rule. 

Lastly,  by  its  emphasis  upon  statutes  and  officers, 
school-cities  and  school-states  tend  actually  to  inter- 
fere with  self-government,  the  ideal  to  be  attained.^ 
It  is  possible  for  a  teacher  to  resign  his  control  over  a 
child,  to  allow  him  to  pass  from  direction  by  others  to 
self-direction,  at  any  time  when  he  is  ready  for  that 
Elasticity  point  in  his  development.  Under  the  control  of 
mettiod''^*'^  teachers,  school  government  retains  an  elasticity 
which  makes  individual  treatment  easy.  When  under 
the  direction  of  children,  however,  who  work  in  accord- 
ance with  a  fixed  set  of  rules,  it  is  impossible  to  suspend 

/  *  "  Rewards  and  punishments  have  a  pedagogical  value,  therefore, 

only  when,  instead  of  outwardly  buying  or  forcing  the  child's  obedi- 
ence, they  teach  him  an  actual  consciousness  of  the  law,  and  develop 
a  free  subjection  to  it."  —  Baur. 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  275 

judgment,  to  except  wisely,  to  take  into  consideration 
the  action  of  forces  which  children  do  not  yet  under- 
stand —  in  short,  to  modify  the  treatment  in  each 
case  as  it  should  be.  Teachers  of  mature  and  well- 
trained  powers  find  it  a  difficult  task  to  be  wise  and 
just  in  their  judgments,  which  is  perhaps  one  reason 
for  the  opposition  of  many  of  the  older  teachers  to  the 
new  methods  of  self-government;  they  can  not  conceive 
of  children  who  are  capable  of  performing  the  task  ably. 

The  principle  of  cooperation,  however,  and  of  respon-  Good 
sibility  on  the  part  of  pupils  for  their  own  behavior  p°"^*^ 
and  to  a  certain  extent  for  their  neighbors',  is  so  sound 
that  some  teachers  think  it  wise  to  base  their  scheme 
of  government  upon  it.  The  secondary  object  of  such 
organizations,  the  teaching  of  civics,  may  be  gained, 
it  is  true,  by  other  means  than  the  harnessing  of  the 
whole  school  routine  to  that  end;^  nevertheless  there 
has  never  been  devised  so  good  a  scheme  for  giving 
constant  practice  and  illustration  of  the  means  of 
popular  government.  The  utilization  of  the  surplus 
energy  of  pupils  in  the  absorbing  machinery  of  school 
administration  is  an  additional  incentive  of  great 
appeal,  especially  in  crowded  city  schools.  The 
following  cautions  are  suggested  to  those  who  think 
of  adopting  a  pupil-government  plan: 

I.  Pupils  need  a  thorough  foundation  of  acknowl-  Facts  to 
edged  ideals  of  honesty,   industry,  and  devotion   to  remember 
duty  if  they  are  to  be  trusted  to  carry  on  such  a  scheme 
after  the  novelty  has  worn  off. 

*  Introducing  children  dramatically  to  the  machinery  of  govern- 
ment will  not  place  old  heads  on  young  shoulders.  —  Strayer, 
Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,  page  160. 


276  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

2.  The  teacher  must  remain  always  the  ultimately 
responsible  person. 

3.  The  plan  of  government  must  not  be  too  elab- 
orate for  the  pupils  who  are  to  use  it. 

4.  Very  able  teachers  are  required  to  make  such  a 
scheme  a  success.  Where  under  ordinary  conditions 
a  teacher  uses  his  authority  frankly  and  quickly, 
under  such  a  regime  he  must  use  it  indirectly,  and 
often  with  annoying  delay.  To  overcome  these  dis- 
advantages requires  a  person  of  much  ingenuity,  tact, 
and  force  of  character. 

5.  Eternal  vigilance  and  untiring  labor  are  necessary 
to  keep  out  evils.  The  plan  involves  more  work  — 
not  less  —  than  direct  government  by  teachers. 

The  Many  of  the  features  of  the  school  city  and  the 

school  state  can  be  used  as  disciplinary  devices  with 
the  best  results.  The  cleaning  squad,  the  pianist  or 
bugler,  the  pennant  committee,  the  girl  who  waters 
the  plants,  and  the  boy  who  fills  the  waterbucket, 
all  are  ofiicers  in  a  school  service  just  as  real  as  if  it 
called  itself  by  some  other  name  than  just  what  it  is. 
A  great  teacher  is  he  who  can  build  up  in  the  minds  of 
his  pupils  a  real  pride  in  being  of  service.  If  children 
ask,  "What  did  he  do  for  the  world?"  of  any  man 
whose  name  they  hear,  something  has  been  accom- 
plished. Let  the  fine  motto,  "I  serve,"  hang  in  an 
honored  place  on  the  wall,  and  let  the  spirit  of  unity 
and  solidarity  be  fostered  in  every  way  possible. 
Daily  stories  of  great  men  and  women,  in  which  hero- 
ism, devotion  to  good  causes,  unselfishness,  and  breadth 
of  sympathy  are  extolled  in  a  concrete  way,  do  wonders 
in  building  up  the  attitude  of  service-giving.     If  enough 


semce- 
ideal 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  277 

variety  in  the  forms  of  service  described  is  given  to 
these  hero-stories,  some  one  of  them  will  probably 
reach  even  the  most  indifferent.  This  development 
of  the  spirit  of  service,  of  the  actual  feeling  of  brother- 
hood and  of  community  of  interest  between  all  the 
pupils  of  the  school,  is  both  the  condition  and  the 
hoped-for  outcome  of  all  pupil-government  plans. 

The  Morning  Exercise  as  a  Help  to  School 
Order 

The  very  essence  and  culmination  of  all  conscious  Purposes  of 
effort  to  serve  the  whole  body  of  the  school,  lies  in  the  ^°^es 
kind  of  morning  exercises  which  really  fulfils  its  pur- 
poses.^ These  purposes  include  the  unification  of  the 
school  in  its  activities  and  interests,  the  motivation 
of  school  work  by  means  of  socializing  incentives,  the 
development  of  expression,  appreciation,  organizing 
ability  and  ideals,  and  the  opportunity  to  give  to  the 
children  a  vision  of  their  relation  to  the  greater  world- 
life  that  lies  outside  the  schoolroom.  Morning  exer- 
cises that  even  very  imperfectly  realize  these  purposes 
become  a  source  of  such  uplift  to  the  school,  of  such  a 
change  in  its  spirit,  as  can  but  react  in  the  improve- 
ment of  order  and  the  elimination  of  evil. 

Before  considering  the  forms  which  morning  exer-  FaUacious 
dses  may  take,  it  will  be  well  to  examine  two  stock  objections 

*  The  Francis  W.  Parker  School  of  Chicago  has  developed  the 
morning  exercise  as  variously  and  successfully  as  any  school.  The 
Year  Book  for  1913  is  devoted  to  an  account  of  this  feature  of  the 
school;  it  is  packed  with  helpful  suggestions.  Much  of  the  material 
of  the  following  paragraphs  is  taken  more  or  less  directly  from  this 
little  book.  (Press  of  Francis  W.  Parker  School,  330  Webster  ave., 
Chicago.     35  cents.) 


278  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

objections  to  them  and  show  how  misleading  and  ill- 
founded  they  are.  These  two  objections  are  that 
morning  exercises,  especially  when  they  depart  from 
the  most  brief  and  formal  routine,  detract  from  the 
time  and  attention  that  should  be  devoted  to  study; 
and  that  the  effect  upon  children  of  appearing  pub- 
licly is  to  develop  self-consciousness,  affectation,  and 
conceit.  The  same  objections  are  urged,  of  course, 
with  respect  to  the  more  elaborate  entertainments 
given  by  young  people  —  plays,  concerts,  pageants; 
and  the  same  answer  may  be  made.  If  the  motive  of 
contributing  to  the  pleasure  and  enlightenment  of  others 
Self-  be  kept  constantly  in  the  foreground,  and  the  child's 

conscious-     conception  of  his  message  be  made  as  vivid  and  as 

ness  and  ,  '^  ,  ,  ° 

service  impressive  as  it  should  be,  there  will  be  no  room  or 
attention  left  for  self  in  his  preparation  or  delivery  of 
it.  His  self-respect  will  increase  with  his  proved  power 
to  entertain  and  instruct  other  people,  and  with  his 
abihty  to  think  on  his  feet  or  speak  without  embarrass- 
ment. But  his  idea  of  his  own  relative  importance  is 
bound  to  shrink  as  he  grows  in  the  wisdom  that  comes 
from  a  broadened  view  and  from  a  new  wealth  of 
knowledge.  Even  though  some  temporary  exaltation 
result  from  his  performance,  it  is  more  than  balanced 
by  the  real  power  which  a  successful  appearance  gives. 
"Children  accustomed  from  childhood  to  an  audience 
learn  to  think  and  speak  upon  their  feet  so  people  can 
hear  and  understand.  It  is  the  habit  of  meeting  an 
audience  every  day  from  the  beginning  that  tells,  that 
gives  power,  skill,  and  self-possession.  The  majority 
of  children  trained  in  this  way  never  experience  the 
agony  of  self-consciousness  that  an  audience  means 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  279 

to  those  educated  to  self-repression  instead  of  self- 
expression."  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  in  morning 
exercises  every  pupil  in  turn  is  to  be  given  a  chance 
to  contribute,  so  that  appearance  gives  practice  with- 
out conferring  any  especial  distinction.  Distinction 
is  the  prize  of  unusual  talent  or  application,  and  will 
inevitably  follow  an  especially  fine  contribution,  as 
it  should. 

With  regard  to  the  first  objection,  its  validity  de-  Special 
pends  entirely  upon  the  nature  of  the  exercises  given  ^owdng 
and  the  skill  with  which  they  are  correlated  with  the  ^'°™ 

regiilar 

regular  work  of  the  school.  They  should  grow  out  of  school 
daily  lessons,  or  spring  from  a  spontaneous  interest  ^°'^ 
in  some  absorbing  question  of  the  day.  "They  are 
usually  the  culmination  of  some  line  of  study.  The 
subject  is  sometimes  science,  the  telling  or  illustrating 
of  observations  of  nature;  the  story  of  some  visit  to 
the  farm,  the  art  gallery,  or  workshop;  history,  current 
events;  the  massing  of  the  literature  and  music  of  some 
special  subject  or  special  day;  the  telling  of  stories 
that  delight  the  children's  hearts;  or  the  discussion 
of  some  problem  of  vital  significance  in  the  community- 
life  of  the  school.  Therefore  the  exercises,  instead  of 
interfering  with  the  school  work,  emphasize,  reinforce 
and  vitalize  it;  give  it  purpose  and  form  and  furnish, 
the  best  test  of  the  children's  growth  and  power  to 
think  and  of  their  skill  in  expression."^ 

The  exercises  used  in  the  Francis  Parker  School 
include  readings,  plays,  concerts,  story-telUng  exer- 
cises, illustrated  history-topics,  demonstrations  of  the 
arts,  and  religious  services.     An  exercise  on  Historical 

*  The  Morning  Exercise  as  a  Socializing  Influence,  page  15. 


28o 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 


Varieties 

and 

sources 


The 

question  of 
devotions 


Methods  in  Arithmetic,  one  on  the  Great  Ice  Sheet, 
one  on  Cicero,  one  on  types  of  bridges,  one  on  different 
kinds  of  artificial  illumination  —  to  select  a  few  at 
random  —  show  how  all  the  activities  of  the  school 
contribute  to  the  morning  exercise.  The  first  grade 
gives  an  exercise  on  play-houses  and  primitive  homes, 
the  high  school  tells  about  the  chemistry  of  water. 
The  entire  school  participates  in  a  series  of  exercises 
on  pottery,  in  which  Indian,  Egyptian,  and  Japanese 
scenes  are  reproduced  in  tableaux  for  which  one  re- 
hearsal was  held,  and  for  which  the  children  made  the 
simple  scenery.  In  other  schools  the  same  plan  has 
been  followed,  the  exercises  being  suggested  by  both 
teachers  and  pupils,  who  inferred  from  their  own 
interest  in  what  they  were  doing  that  others  would  be 
interested  too.  Dramatization  of  stories  studied  in 
literature  classes,  song-cycles,  talks  about  vacation 
experiences  or  accounts  of  travel,  explanations  of  new 
scientific  discoveries  and  reviews  of  new  books  —  all 
these  things  may  be  presented  to  a  rapt  audience  if 
only  the  desire  for  self-expression  spring  from  a  suflB.- 
ciently  vivid  appreciation  of  some  new  experience  or 
some  old  hobby.  Such  morning  exercises  can  spring 
only  from  a  quality  of  mental  wide-awakeness,  which 
is  in  its  turn  stimulated  by  the  expression  given. 

A  most  unfortunate  condition  which  prevents  the 
morning  exercise  in  public  schools  from  fulfilling  its 
final  degree  of  helpfulness,  is  the  impossibility  in  many 
localities  of  including  devotional  exercises.  The  influ- 
ence of  simple  and  sincere  reUgious  services,  of  the 
Bible  lesson  and  prayer  and  of  hymns  of  praise,  when 
led  by  those  who  themselves  feel  the  inspiration  they 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  281 

afford,  is  so  great  that  our  schools  can  ill  afford  to 
forego  it.  Wherever  the  laws  permit  such  devotional 
services,  and  they  can  be  held  without  arousing  a 
degree  of  objection  which  would  defeat  their  purpose, 
they  should  form  part  of  the  morning  exercise.  The 
possibility  of  utilizing  the  potent  force  of  religious 
sentiment,  unhampered  by  law  or  the  charge  of  unduly 
pushing  denominational  views,  is  one  of  the  distinct 
advantages  possessed  by  the  private  school.  In  lieu 
of  this,  and  as  the  next  best  thing,  fine  stories  of  heroic 
deeds,  the  best  that  literature  and  art  can  give  to  stir 
the  soul  and  elevate  the  taste,  every  legitimate  appeal 
to  the  higher  emotions  and  the  idealizing  power  of 
youth,  will  serve  to  make  life  so  earnest,  rich,  and  full 
of  wholesome  joy  that  petty  meanness  and  silly  mis- 
chief are  crowded  out. 

The  unifying  influence  of  the  morning  exercise  Evtrybody'i 
depends  largely  upon  completeness  of  participation  ^*"" 
—  upon  the  thoroughness  with  which  each  member 
of  the  school  is  drawn  into  the  circle.  The  school 
that  has  an  assembly  room  large  enough  to  accommo- 
date all  the  grades  and  the  high  school  is  fortunate 
in  this  respect,  for  there  a  friendly  fellowship  may 
spring  from  the  frequent  and  helpful  association. 
Such  a  school  will  not  suffer  from  that  absurd  and 
harmful  feeling  of  superiority  and  aloofness  which 
grows  up  among  high  school  and  upper  grade  pupils 
who  are  habitually  separated  from  their  small  brothers 
and  sisters.  It  is  probable  that  such  association,  by 
visualizing  the  shadowy  realm  of  learning's  higher 
haunts,  has  a  helpful  influence  in  reducing  retardation. 
The  small  urchin  who  sees  the  high  school  rooms. 


282  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

the  high  school  students  (not  swaggering  past  him 
on  the  walk,  but  sitting  at  desks  as  he  does,  and  sing- 
ing or  reciting  as  he  does,  only  better)  may  acquire 
the  ambition  to  be  a  high  school  boy  too.  The  ideal 
of  the  school  is  that  of  a  friendly  group,  working  to- 
gether^ in  harmony  for  common  ends;  and  yet  there 
axe  many  school  children  who  never  see  the  rooms  in 
which  older  children  meet,  to  say  nothing  of  gaining 
a  conception  of  the  pleasures  that  lie  beyond  them 
if  they  persevere.  In  morning  exercises  planned  to 
show  the  results  of  study,  this  end  of  holding  out 
incentives  for  effort,  among  others,  may  be  realized. 
Older  children  delight  in  the  performances  of  their 
younger  schoolmates,  and  their  appreciation  is  golden 
for  the  admiring  little  people. 

Each  room  in  a  building,  each  child  in  each  room, 
may  do  something  during  the  year,  if  only  the  simplest 
of  mechanical  services,  toward  the  success  of  the  daily 
meeting.  All  the  best  of  individual  gain,  all  the 
happy  outcomes  of  common  effort,  may  be  brought  to 
this  social  center  and  there  proudly,  gladly,  be  offered 
to  the  whole  body  of  the  school.  And  only  as  the 
spirit  of  loving  and  eager  giving  dominates  the  activities 
of  this  period,  will  it  become  the  power  for  good  that 
it  may  be. 
Avoiding  A  few  practical  suggestions  and  cautions  for  the 

haphazard  conduct  of  these  exercises  may  be  helpful.  They 
must,  first  of  all,  be  planned  definitely  and  carefully, 
programmed  as  clearly  as  any  class  exercise,  and  pur- 
posefully arranged. 

The  mechanical  details  of  marching,  placing,  order, 
ventilation,  signals,  distribution  of  papers  or  books, 


DISCIPLINARY  DEVICES  283 

and   the   courteous   formalities   that  must   mark   the  ' 
assembling  of  large  bodies,  should  be  carefully  arranged 
by  all  the  teachers  in  council. 

Children  who  are  too  shy,  or  not  sufl&ciently  talented 
to  appear  in  prominent  ways,  should  be  assigned 
duties  which  they  can  perform,  so  that  all  may  feel 
their  responsibility.  Ushering,  arranging  shades  and 
opening  windows,  the  duties  of  doorkeepers  and  stage 
managers,  passing  songbooks  or  papers,  are  little 
oflaces  that  add  to  the  comfort  and  pleasure  of  such 
occasions,  and  may  be  performed  by  the  shy  and  back- 
ward pupils  who  can  not  sing  or  play  or  speak. 

Marching  to  and  from  the  room  facilitates  the  Marching 
gathering  and  dispersal  of  pupils.  Do  not  try  to 
achieve  mihtary  precision,  but  aim  to  develop  the 
feeling  for  balance  and  rhythm  and  erect,  graceful, 
elastic  carriage,  which  normal  children  have.  On 
special  occasions,  as  at  Christmas  and  Easter  services, 
the  marching  may  be  omitted,  to  add  quiet  to  the 
elements  that  create  a  different  atmosphere.  In  this, 
as  in  all  exercises,  only  good  music  should  be  tolerated. 
A  cheap  popular  air  is  no  more  excusable  when  used 
as  a  march  than  if  played  as  an  instrumental  solo  in  a 
program. 

Summary 

In  the  socializing  process,  loyalty  to  the  groups 
with  which  children  are  identified,  such  as  class  and 
room,  is  a  step  toward  a  more  complete  merging  of 
individual  interests  with  social  aims.  Therefore  group 
loyalty  is  to  be  encouraged,  taking  care  to  appeal 
always  to  larger  and  larger  groups  as  children  become 
old  enough  to  comprehend  these  larger  units.    They 


284  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

should  work  to  improve  the  character  and  increase 
the  accomplishment  of  the  groups  with  which  they 
are  connected.  Pupil-government  schemes,  which  are 
elaborations  of  the  older  monitorial  schemes  with  the 
addition  of  legislative  features,  are  helpful  in  teaching 
civics,  but  are  illogical  and  misleading  in  so  far  as  they 
confuse  the  attitudes  of  preparation  and  administra- 
tion. The  ideals  of  faithful  service  and  self-govern- 
ment may  be  taught  in  other  ways.  A  more  effective 
means  of  socializing  the  school  lies  in  wisely  planned 
general  exercises,  to  which  all  are  expected  to  con- 
tribute. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE  SUPERVISION  OF  DISCIPLINE 

No  part  of  the  supervision  of  schools  is  more  im- 
portant than  the  supervision  of  their  discipline;  and 
in  general  it  is  true  that  no  part  is  more  difficult.  As 
the  reputation  of  an  individual  teacher  stands  or  falls 
with  his  success  or  failure  in  keeping  order,^  so  the 
name  of  a  man  at  the  head  of  a  school  system  will 
acquire  distinction  or  lose  it  accordingly  as  he  succeeds 
or  fails  to  secure  order  and  industry  and  frieiidly 
cooperation  throughout  the  schools  he  controls.  The 
importance  of  this  subject,  therefore,  is  great  enough 
to  warrant  the  most  careful  study,  both  of  its  theoretical 
and  of  its  practical  aspects;  and  yet  few  supervisors 
undertake  it  in  systematic  manner,  and  httle  has  been 
done  to  formulate  the  principles  which  underlie  suc- 
cessful practice.  The  present  discussion  will  aim  to  Topics 
suggest,  first,  the  function  of  the  supervisor  in  securing  discussion 
good  order  where  the  teacher  in  charge  has  trouble; 
second,  a  means  of  analyzing  the  situation  in  each 
case;  third,  an  outline  of  a  typical  process  by  which 
a  supervisor  may  hope  to  make  a  good  disciplinarian 
out  of  a  poor  one.     For  the  excellence  of  a  staff  of 

'  Ruediger  and  Strayer,  "The  Qualities  of  Merit  in  Teachers," 
Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  May,  igio.  Arthur  C.  Boyce, 
"Qualities  of  Merit  in  Secondary  School  Teachers,"  Journal  of 
Educational  Psychology,  March,  191 2. 


286  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

teachers  depends,  so  far  as  the  superintendent  is  con- 
cerned, upon  two  abilities  which  he  must  exercise 
alternately  and  complementarily.  The  first  is  the 
abiUty  to  select  good  teachers,  the  second  the  ability 
to  improve  those  whom  he  has  selected,  or  those  with 
whom  Fate  has  provided  him.  Improving  teachers 
in  service  is  the  most  needed  and  valuable  of  these 
abilities. 
The  The  teacher  who  has  trouble  with  the  order  and 

du?y'^'^^'°  spirit  of  his  room  has  a  right  to  expect  help  from  his 
principal  or  superintendent.  The  supervisory  function 
properly  extends  to  the  maintenance  of  a  good  school 
spirit  expressed  in  cheerful  conformity  to  school  cus- 
toms. When  the  individual  teacher  falls  short  of 
securing  this,  it  is  the  business  of  the  supervisor  to 
find  where  the  trouble  lies  and  suggest  a  remedy. 
The  supervisor,  of  whatever  rank,  who  exercises  a 
purely  judicial  function  only,  misses  the  most  impor- 
tant part  of  his  calling.  His  work  should  be  judicial, 
then  constructive,  then  judicial  again;  but  the  test 
of  his  work  lies  in  his  ability  to  build  up,  to  strengthen, 
to  improve,  to  eliminate  weakness,  to  inspire,  to  make 
permanent  each  gain  in  efficiency.  Teachers  not 
amenable  to  advice  —  the  headstrong,  the  conceited, 
the  hopelessly  incompetent  —  have  no  place  in  an 
efiicient  school  system,  and  after  a  fair  trial  should  be 
dismissed  from  service. 

The  fair  trial,  which  means  a  trial  with  help,  the 
supervisor  is  bound  to  give.  He  may  have  that  in 
his  position  and  his  personaHty  which  is  just  the  ele- 
ment wanting  in  the  equipment  of  the  inefficient 
teacher;   and  having  itj  he  is  morally  bound  to  use  it 


SUPERVISION  OF   DISCIPLINE  287 

at  any  place  in  his  whole  system  where  it  may  be  of 
service.  He  has  experience,  which  brings  in  its  wake 
any  number  of  kinds  of  equipment.  He  has  usually 
a  more  thorough  preparation,  a  wider  range  of  knowl- 
edge, than  his  teachers.  He  is,  above  all,  the  visible 
agent  of  authority  in  the  eyes  of  the  pupils  of  the 
school  —  an  authority  whose  identification  with  the 
teacher  is  not  always  obvious  to  the  school.  All  these 
things  a  supervisor  must  put  at  the  service  of  a  teacher 
before  condemning  her  as  a  poor  disciplinarian. 

Wherever  bad  order  exists,  obviously  the  first  duty  Analyzing 
of  the  supervisor  is  to  analyze  the  situation  with  care,  gj^ation 
in  order  to  know  definitely  the  source  of  weakness. 
Probably  a  clear  idea  of  the  cause  of  the  trouble  is  the 
teacher's  first,  most  fundamental  need.  Usually 
neither  will  nor  disposition,  but  knowledge,  is  lacking. 
Four  simple  questions  suffice,  as  a  rule,  to  cover  the 
ground  of  an  inquiry  into  the  cause  of  bad  order,  and 
they  are  given  here  in  the  order  in  which  they  will 
probably  furnish  the  key  to  the  situation: 

I,  Does  the  teacher  have  an  adequate  ideal  of  good 
order? 

2.. If  not,  how  can  such  an  ideal  be  created  for  this 
teacher,  and  how  can  he  be  made  sensitive  to  failure 
of  its  realization? 

3.  If,  or  when,  the  ideal  exists,  what  weakness  pre- 
vents its  realization? 

4.  What  devices  does  this  teacher  need  for  securing 
good  order? 

Taken  in  this  order  and  answered  in  turn,  these  four 
questions  will  give  in  almost  every  case  a  basis  for 
advice  to  a  teacher  who  has  difl&culty  with  the  behavior 


288  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

The  ideal  of  his  pupils.  The  most  fundamental  requirement 
o  or  er  ^^^  good  order  is  the  ideal  of  good  order,  and  in  many 
cases  its  absence  at  once  gives  the  cue  for  the  training 
of  the  teacher,  who  needs  to  be  told  what  to  require 
of  his  pupils,  and  also  to  realize  the  seriousness  of 
falhng  short  of  an  approximate  realization.  When 
the  teacher  knows  what  he  ought  to  have,  he  may  still 
fail  to  have  it  because  of  some  weakness  of  which  he 
is  either  unaware,  or  which  he  is  powerless  to  over- 
come. When  the  teacher  has  both  an  ideal  and  the 
strength  to  realize  it,  he  fails  because  he  does  not  know 
the  method  by  which  to  gain  his  end  —  that  is,  he 
needs  devices. 

Of  course  it  is  not  supposed  that  an  experienced 
supervisor  will  necessarily  follow  just  this  order  of 
reasoning  in  an  attempt  to  ascertain  the  situation  in 
a  room  wanting  good  order,  for  experience  gives  after 
a  time  a  quickness  of  insight  into  the  weaknesses  of 
teachers  or  the  peculiar  diflSculties  of  a  hard  place, 
perhaps  beyond  the  teacher's  power  to  change.  But 
it  can  not  be  too  strongly  emphasized  that  a  precise 
and  correct  analysis  of  the  situation  is  the  first  duty 
of  the  superintendent  who  wants  to  help  a  teacher  in 
this  respect. 
A  construe-  Then,  having  diagnosed  the  case,  the  advising  phy- 
tive  program  gj^^jg^j^  j^g^g  j^g^t  to  suggest  a  plan  of  treatment.  The 
following  outline  of  a  constructive  policy  for  super- 
vision with  a  view  to  improving  discipline  is,  of  course, 
more  full  than  actual  practice  in  a  majority  of  cases 
would  require,  for  the  reason  that  it  aims  to  cover  the 
range  of  needs  and  remedies.  It  is  hoped  that  it  may 
prove  suggestive  in  some  or  all  of  its  parts. 


SUPERVISION   OF   DISCIPLINE  289 

Where  bad  order  springs  from  the  lack  of  an  adequate  Giving 
ideal  on  the  teacher's  part,  which  is  the  case  with  many 
young  teachers  who  have  difficulty,  the  work  of  the 
superintendent  begins  with  the  estabUshment  of  a 
conscious,  imperial,  and  adequate  ideal  of  good  order. 
With  this  positive  ideal  there  must  also  be  taught,  if 
the  work  is  to  be  thorough  and  efifective,  a  converse 
sensitiveness  to  bad  order.  The  ideal  will  be  clarified 
and  strengthened  by  contrast.  There  are  several  ways 
in  which  this  ideal  may  be  brought  to  the  teacher's 
notice  and  become  a  part  of  his  own  working  capital. 
The  most  obvious  and  direct  is  a  clear  formulation  of 
the  ideal  by  the  supervisor  in  as  few  words  as  possible. 
Then  this  bare  statement  may  be  illumined  in  an 
illustration  by  a  lesson  taught  by  the  supervisor,  or 
an  hour's  conduct  of  the  room,  if  the  nature  of  the  case 
permit  of  this  object-lesson.  The  teacher  may  be  sent 
to  observe  others  who  are  known  to  be  good  in  dis- 
cipline, alone  or  with  the  supervisor,  being  required 
in  either  case  to  make  a  summary  of  specific  points 
observed,  good  and  bad.  Then  there  is  the  inspira- 
tional method  of  telling  stories  of  teachers  who  suc- 
ceeded just  where  the  teacher  in  question  needs  to 
succeed  —  with  care  always  to  recount  methods  and 
difficulties,  since  nothing  is  less  inspiring  than  to  hear 
of  someone  who  succeeded  by  sheer  force  of  native 
genius  where  one's  own  native  genius  absolutely 
refuses  to  function.     Added  to  these  is  a  whole  set  of  indirect 

helps 

indirect  helps,  including  general  ideas  of  the  ideal 
relation  between  teacher  and  pupils,  the  people's  place 
in  society  and  education,  the  nature  of  government, 
and  the  course  of  social  evolution.     These  last  ideas 


290  DISCIPLINE   OF   THE   SCHOOL 

are  not  visionary  conceptions  incapable  of  helping  a 
teacher  over  a  very  concrete  and  harassing  diflSculty. 
They  have  proved  often  to  be  just  the  remedy  for  evils 
that  seem  at  first  blush  to  bear  no  sensible  relation  to 
them.  The  truth  is  that  no  professional  work  is  more 
calculated  in  its  daily  round  of  Uttle  and  tedious  tasks 
to  narrow  and  mechanize  than  is  teaching.  A  very 
large  amount  of  schoolroom  trouble  is  merely  the 
natural  result  of  weariness  produced  by  too  much 
attention  to  details  that  have  gone  stale,  and  a  lack 
of  serenity  and  bigness  in  the  teacher.  Any  idea 
which  brings  sureness,  which  minimizes  the  im- 
portance of  Uttle  annoyances,  which  gives  that 
kindUness  which  comes  with  the  hfe  of  big  spaces 
and  that  serenity  which  comes  with  content  and 
growth,  is  a  direct  and  powerful  help  in  securing 
good  order. 

Finding  Much  of  the  helplessness  of  young  or  weak  teachers 

in  matters  of  discipUne  comes  from  a  lack  of  abihty  to 
find  or  analyze  the  causes  of  bad  order.  There  is  really 
a  distinction  between  what  may  be  called  positive  weak- 
nesses of  the  teacher — faults  which  without  blame 
on  the  part  of  the  pupils  bring  about  disorder  —  and 
negative  weaknesses,  the  failure  of  the  teacher  to  deal 
wisely  with  things  started  by  the  pupils.  But  the 
intuition  of  boys  and  girls  is  such  that  a  teacher's 
weakness  and  its  response  in  the  pupils  are  rarely  to 
be  separated  in  actual  practice.  Considering,  then, 
the  bad  order  that  begins  with  the  pupils,  teachers 
need  to  learn  to  distinguish  two  great  classes  of  causes 
which  predicate  an  essential  difference  in  the  treatment 
given  the  overt  act.    There  are: 


the  cause 


SUPERVISION   OF   DISCIPLINE  291 

1,  Causes  which  are  purely  accidental,  incidental, 
or  uncontrollable. 

2.  Causes  which  are  motivated. 

The  careful  and  experienced  teacher  so  provides  for  Correcting 
every  possible  situation  that  accidental  causes  of  routine 
disorder  are  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  machinery 
of  his  schoolroom  takes  care  of  all  ordinary  routine 
business  without  friction  and  without  much  chance  of 
mishap.  Often  a  more  thoroughly  organized  school- 
room routine  will  do  away  with  the  greater  part  of  a 
teacher's  troubles,  especially  such  as  spring  from 
noise,  confusion,  and  idleness.  The  supervisor  should 
spend  some  time  in  the  room  and  make  definite  notes 
of  the  details  of  organization  needed.  The  causes  of 
trouble  are  usually  such  as  poor  marching  order,  too 
much  freedom  during  intermissions,  no  definite  place 
for  school  apparatus,  a  lack  of  brisk  procedure  in 
changing  work,  wandering  about  the  room  by  pupils, 
noisy  habits  of  putting  away  or  getting  out  work,  no 
rest  provision  during  long  school  sessions,  no  recess  for 
flushing  the  room  with  fresh  air,  and  other  similar 
details  of  poor  management.  A  wise  superintendent 
does  not  dismiss  the  matter  after  making  suggestions; 
he  visits  the  room  frequently  until  he  finds  the  new 
order  of  things  in  good  working  shape.  By  that  time 
any  disorder  due  to  other  causes  will  stand  out  with 
suflScient  clearness  to  indicate  its  own  proper  treatment. 

Mischief  that  is  deliberately  made  can  usually  be  Motives 
attributed  to  one  of  the  following  motives,  and  dealt 
with  according  to  the  amount  of  depravity  involved: 

1.  Vanity  —  the  desire  to  attract  attention. 

2.  Laziness  —  the  desire  to  avoid  exertion. 


292  DISCIPLINE    OF   THE    SCHOOL 

3.  The  desire  to  have  fun. 

4.  The  desire  to  torture  —  the  pleasure  in  another's 
suffering. 

Of  these  motives  the  last  is  the  most  serious  and 
perhaps  the  least  common,  although  young  teachers, 
harassed  by  a  set  of  active  persecutors,  are  liable  to 
attribute  to  it  the  greater  part  of  their  trouble.  The 
homeopathic  principle  of  a  like  cure  suggests  that 
mischief  caused  by  childish  vanity,  the  desire  to  "show 
off,"  be  mended  by  a  judicious  thrust  at  that  vanity. 
Where  pure  physical  inertia  causes  the  breach  of  law, 
the  cause  lies  usually  in  a  poor  environment  or  in  some 
physical  peculiarity.  Very  few  children  are  inherently 
lazy;  indolence,  where  it  exists  in  the  young,  is  the 
result  of  habit  or  of  physical  imperfection.  A  too-fat 
child  needs  attention  to  diet  and  exercise,  matters 
"Fat  which  must  be  taken  up  with  the  parents.     City  chil- 

J^y  „  dren  are  often  habitually  lazy  because  they  have  neither 

the  chores  and  housework  to  do  that  occupy  the  time 
of  country  children,  nor  wholesome  amusements  to 
take  their  place.  Here  play-grounds,  or  other  extra- 
curricular activities,  must  solve  the  problem.  Boys 
and  girls  who  are  growing  fast  sometimes  seem  unable 
to  concentrate,  even  for  a  short  time,  on  mental  work. 
They  need  a  temporary  rest  from  it,  with  manual 
activities  to  help  along  physical  development  and 
occupy  the  mind  without  taxing  it.  This  sort  of 
remedy  is  often  impossible,  owing  to  the  still  too 
inflexible  curriculum  of  most  of  our  schools;  but  the 
teacher  who  understands  the  situation  may  be  able 
to  arrange  a  partial  change  that  will  at  least  help  things 
along. 


SUPERVISION   OF   DISCIPLINE  293 

Inherent  love  of  fun  is  no  longer  considered  a  sin,  The  love 
or  even  a  tendency  to  be  discouraged.  It  is  regarded  ** 
as  a  wholesome  and  lovely  thing  that  should  enlist  the 
sympathy  of  all.  The  greater  the  teacher,  in  fact, 
the  more  difficult  is  it  for  him  to  forbid  those  playful 
impulses  which  are  bound  to  interfere  with  the  neces- 
sarily artificial  routine  of  the  schoolroom.  In  deahng 
with  this  kind  of  mischief,  the  true  reason  for  forbid- 
ding it  will  usually  appeal  to  a  child  as  forcibly  as  it 
does  to  the  older  people  who  must  cut  off  a  pleasure 
with  which  they  really  sympathize  heartily.  Teachers 
forbid  any  fun  but  incidental  fun  in  school  hours 
because  there  is  more  serious  business  on  hand,  and 
because  that  business  can  never  be  done  without 
giving  it  one's  whole  attention.  A  dignified  insistence 
on  the  school's  main  business  suffices  for  some  children; 
with  others,  in  whom  animal  spirits  outweigh  all  con- 
siderations of  self-interest,  isolation  or  some  other  form 
of  punishment  is  necessary,  after  which  the  fault  can 
be  cured  largely  by  substitution. 

The  innate  love  of  teasing  is  strong  in  an  extraordi-  The 
nary  number  of  children,  the  stimulus  that  gives  it  ^^^^e^^ 
expression  being  found  in  almost  any  unkind  act  or 
word  that  such  children  see  or  hear.  The  imitative 
faculties  of  children  are  particularly  sharp  where  any 
display  of  authority  is  concerned;  and  the  spectacular 
ways  of  showing  authority  appeal  to  them  especially. 
Everyone  knows  that  a  little  girl  will  box  or  whip  her 
dolls  with  great  gusto  if  she  has  ever  been  served  in  a 
similar  way  by  her  mother.  Children,  Hke  negroes, 
placed  in  authority  over  others  of  their  own  condition 
are  unmerciful.     Given  a  teacher  who  shows  himself 


294  DISCIPLINE   OF  THE   SCHOOL 

sensitive  to  annoyance,  children  prove  themselves 
very  successful  persecutors.  Although  they  them- 
selves have  never  suffered  in  any  poignant  way,  they 
show  a  genius  in  finding  ways  in  which  the  most  ex- 
treme suffering  can  be  inflicted  upon  the  object  of  their 
persecution.  The  love  of  power  finds  an  easy  expres- 
sion in  acts  that  show  others  to  be  at  one's  mercy,  and 
so  exalt  the  tyrant  in  the  eyes  of  his  fellows.  Any 
helpless  person,  teacher  or  fellow-pupil,  is  liable  to  be 
the  victim.  Where  this  bully  attitude  seems  to  be  the 
motive  behind  disorder  of  any  kind,  that  act,  or  habit, 
or  whatever  it  may  be,  should  be  stopped  at  any  cost 
with  all  speed  and  with  a  frank  avowal  of  emotional 
repugnance.  The  remedy  lies  in  the  building  up,  not 
of  a  slow-working  rational  sense  of  justice,  but  of  a 
deeply-rooted  habitual  prejudice. 
Training  Altruistic  feelings  are  largely  a  matter  of  habit  and 

altruism  training.  It  is  foolish  to  waste  time  in  trying  to  work 
out  a  rational  response  to  any  appeal  to  social  or  per- 
sonal interest  here;  the  work  needs  to  be  done  in  early 
youth  through  the  short-cut,  effective  means  of  preju- 
dice, thoroughly  ingrained  by  a  liberal  appeal  to  the 
whole  force  of  public  opinion.  In  no  place  is  there  a 
better  excuse  for  the  use  of  that  well-worn  device  of 
the  teacher,  the  exaggeration  of  emotional  content, 
than  here.  The  heinousness  of  the  offense  of  him  who 
deliberately  causes  pain  to  another  can  scarcely  be 
exaggerated.  There  are  teachers  who  can  produce 
copious  tears  from  Johnny  because  he  has  pulled 
Mary's  braids,  by  a  touching  talk  administered  after 
school.  Let  such  teachers  add  an  equally  eloquent 
description  of    the  meanness   of    the   desire  to  hurt 


SUPERVISION   OF   DISCIPLINE  295 

other  people,  and  the  method  may  result  in  real  good. 
Johnny's  sense  of  humor  does  not,  then,  remove  the 
effects  of  the  histrionic  rebuke  when  his  common-sense 
contrasts  the  real  wickedness  of  his  act  with  its 
mock-heroic  treatment.  Whatever  the  method,  the 
treatment  can  not  be  too  quick,  too  decided,  too 
powerful.  The  unquestioned  use  of  unquestioned 
authority,  rebuking  and  punishing  with  the  sureness 
of  Fate  and  the  swiftness  of  catastrophic  justice,  is 
the  best  remedy  for  this  tendency  wherever  it  shows 
itself. 

In  analyzing  motives  the  first  requisite  for  success  Analysis 
is  sympathy  with  pupils.  A  real  personal  acquaint- 
ance will,  with  yoimg  teachers,  pretty  effectively  take 
the  place  of  that  quick,  almost  intuitional  insight 
which  the  experienced  instructor  develops.  Children 
have  an  immense  self-respect  and  reticence  where 
their  mental  processes  are  concerned,  and  self-interest 
will  bolster  this  up,  on  occasion,  to  the  point  where 
only  keen  ability  can  detect  where  the  truth  lies. 
Sympathy  unlocks  doors  that  defy  even  the  keenest 
psychological  knowledge;  and  for  that  reason,  if  for 
no  other,  the  teacher  who  wishes  to  succeed  as  a  dis- 
ciplinarian needs  to  improve  every  opportunity  to 
establish  friendly  relations  with  pupils. 

Next  to  a  sympathetic  attitude  toward  present 
offenders,  a  retrospective  recall  of  one's  own  past  is 
needed.  "He  can't  remember  when  he  was  young" 
is  one  of  the  things  that  no  teacher  wants  to  hear  of 
himself;  he  knows  that  it  is  one  of  the  most  serious 
indictments  that  youth  can  bring  against  an  instructor. 
A  recall  of  the  experience  of  having  one's  own  motives 


296 


DISCIPLINE   OF   THE    SCHOOL 


Habitual 
study  of 
motives 


The  teacher 
at  fault 


misunderstood  is  one  of  the  best  helps  in  analyzing 
the  motives  of  offenders. 

A  third  help  in  analyzing  motives  is  practice,  rein- 
forced by  comparison  and  cumulative  proof.  If  the 
supervisor  will  insist  on  constant  reference  to  motive 
in  each  case  of  corrective  discipline  that  arises,  teachers 
will  form  the  habit,  and  skill  will  grow  with  practice. 
To  insure  this,  it  is  suggested  that  he  require  the 
teacher  to  prepare  a  table,  showing  in  one  column  the 
typical  acts  of  a  day  or  a  week  that  have  required 
correction;  in  a  second,  the  motive  that  the  teacher 
thinks  has  actuated  each  offense;  in  a  third,  the  method 
of  treatment  used  in  each  case,  the  treatment  always  be- 
ing aimed  to  remove  the  fundamental  difficulty  or  fault. 

Where  inquiry  results  in  the  teacher's  consciousness 
of  a  weakness  of  his  own  as  that  cause,  or  as  one  of  the 
causes,  the  cure  is  a  comparatively  simple  matter, 
although  it  may  not  be  easy.  Curing  one's  own  faults 
is  easy  compared  to  the  task  of  curing  other  people's, 
for  in  the  former  case  one  has  the  ally  of  the  will  — 
the  most  powerful  single  factor  in  accomplishing  the 
desired  end.  The  weaknesses  of  teachers  that  result  in 
poor  disciplinary  control  are  legion.  They  range  from 
the  fundamental  ones  of  weak  will  and  low  ideals, 
through  personal  peculiarities,  such  as  noisy  and 
undignified  manners,  carelessness  in  dress  and  lan- 
guage, and  cool  indifference  to  pupils  and  their  needs, 
to  imitated  faults  for  which  imitated  virtues  may  be 
substituted.  These  imitated  faults  include  the  un- 
reasonable demands  sometimes  made  by  thoughtless 
teachers  because  some  other  teacher  demands  those 
things,  and  the  copied  methods  of  some  school  or 


SUPERVISION   OF   DISCIPLINE  297 

teacher  who  has  made  a  strong  impression  upon  a 
novice.  They  include  the  dislike  of  a  "scene"  which 
permits  little  sources  of  disorder  to  grow  to  great  ones 
pending  the  advent  of  an  imperative  call  for  correction; 
the  failure  to  provide  enough  activity  for  the  pupils; 
and  the  indulgence  of  a  vindictive  or  soured  disposition. 

All  this  preliminary  investigation,  whether  it  occupy  The 
several  days'  time  or  be  disposed  of  in  five  minutes,  is  J"^7*^" 
for  the  purpose  of  guiding  the  teacher  in  the  applica-  rescue 
tion  of  remedies.     The  cure's  the  thing.     The  crucial 
function  of  the  supervisor  is  to  give  the  puzzled  teacher 
a  means  of  realizing  the  ideal  of  good  order.     The 
concrete   help   given   will   vary   with   each   situation. 
The  following  suggestions,  however,  will  cover  in  a 
general  way  a  majority  of  cases  where  help  is  needed: 

I.  Stimulate  the  teacher's  volition  —  "bolster  up  Means  of 
his  backbone."  Increase  self-dependence  and  self-  JeaJ^fs 
respect  until  it  reaches  a  point  at  which  an  affront  to 
it  becomes  an  unendurable  outrage.  This  attitude 
is  not  incongruous  with  a  true  idea  of  the  teacher's 
place,  importance  and  function.  It  is  the  idea  that  all 
pupils  should  have  of  all  teachers,  but  it  is  so  far  from 
the  idea  held  in  many  communities  and  families  that 
children  come  to  school  with  no  intention  of  living  up 
to  it  unless  forced  to  do  so;  and  many  teachers  are  so 
susceptible  to  prevailing  public  opinion,  so  uncertain 
of  their  standing,  that  they  yield  to  the  ideas  of  their 
pupils  instead  of  insisting  that  the  pupils  come  up  to 
the  real  standard.  Perhaps  a  majority  of  cases  of  bad 
order  are  due  to  the  timidity  or  cowardice  of  some 
teacher  —  not  always  the  teacher  who  suffers  most 
and  in  whose  room  the  disorder  appears,  although  this 


298  DISCIPLINE   OF  THE   SCHOOL 

is  usually  the  case.  Sometimes  a  principal,  big  enough 
to  enforce  order  in  his  own  presence  by  dint  of  appeal 
to  physical  force,  is  responsible  for  bad  order  in  the 
room  of  a  woman  teacher  whose  authority  he  refuses 
wholly  to  support.  But  in  the  main  it  is  true  that  a 
teacher  who  has  a  sufficiently  exalted  opinion  of  the 
dignity  of  his  rank  and  work,  can  insist  upon  deference 
to  his  authority  until  he  gets  it.  The  process  will  be 
long  and  hard  unless  he  has  active  support  from  prin- 
cipal, superintendent,  and  school  board;  but  if  patience 
and  health  hold  out,  even  single-handed  a  teacher  who 
The  teacher  has  enough  will  power  can  win  in  the  end.  Sometimes 
from  force  a  gently-bred  woman  recoils  so  violently  before  the 
distaste  of  a  conflict  with  pupils,  to  whom  considera- 
tions of  courtesy  and  self-respect  are  nothing,  that 
she  would  rather' suffer  the  indignity  of  a  lack  of  respect 
than  make  the  necessary  appeal  to  force.  This  is 
where  the  support  of  the  superintendent,  in  whom  for 
the  child  force  doth  finally  reside,  needs  to  be  made 
apparent;  but  no  display  of  it  can  take  the  place  of  a 
resolution  on  the  teacher's  part  that  she  will  brook 
absolutely  no  imposition  on  her  prerogatives.  She  is 
dealing  with  an  elemental  situation,  with  human 
beings  but  partially  developed,  and  the  work  must  be 
done,  if  necessary,  in  an  elemental  way.  She  is  the 
representative  of  the  organized  forces  of  society,  of 
civilization  itself,  and  no  personal  feelings  should  stand 
in  the  way  of  doing  her  duty  by  that  society  which  has 
intrusted  her  with  this  part  of  the  progress  of  the  race. 
She  dare  not  betray  her  trust  to  bring  this  boy  or  girl 
into  the  fold  of  social  cooperation  —  by  gentle  means 
if  he  will,  by  force  even  if  must  be. 


SUPERVISION  OF   DISCIPLINE  299 

2.  Put  the  teacher  on  the  lookout  for  signs  of  coming  signs  and 
trouble  and  teach  him  to  nip  them  in  the  formative  miscWef 
stage.     Preach  the  consummate  virtues  of  prevention. 

Call  attention  to  the  signs  of  coming  mischief  —  the 
ominous  silence,  the  constrained  position,  the  too- 
innocent  look,  the  idle  moment.  Show  how  brisk  class 
movements,  a  diversion  that  attracts  attention  at  the 
psychological  moment,  a  quick  check  that  strengthens 
the  impression  of  the  teacher's  omniscience,  prevents 
more  mischief  than  the  best  teacher  could  ever  hope  / 

to  prevent  by  means  of  punishment.  -^^--n — ^ 

3.  Demonstrate  the  value  of  the  mechanical  controls  School 
of  environment  —  the  quiet,  the  orderly  way  of  doing  '*"*    * 
things,  the  system  that  anticipates  sporadic  action,  a 
fixed,  understood,  and  economical  routine.     Show  the 
advantage  of  prevision. 

4.  If  none  exist,  help  the  teacher  to  establish  those  Bases  for 
auxiliary  school  interests  which  further  friendship  and 
occupy  spare  time.     Let  friendliness  between  teacher 

and  pupil  be  established  upon  the  basis  of  common 
interests.  Herein  lies  a  great  part  of  the  value  of 
athletics  in  school  life;  and  also  of  music,  manual  arts 
of  various  sorts,  and  social  affairs. 

5.  Has  the  teacher  made  clear  the  standard  to  which  MaWng 

,  require- 

pupils  are  expected  to  conform?  If  not,  how  best  can  ments  dear 
it  be  stated?  Teachers  have  become  familiar  through 
years  of  training  and  experience,  with  the  require- 
ments of  schoolroom  routine;  they  may  find  in 
their  rooms  some  boys  or  girls  to  whom  one  or 
more  of  these  are  entirely  new  ideas.  Of  course 
this  is  especially  true  in  schools  containing  a  foreign 
element. 


300 


DISCIPLINE   OF   THE   SCHOOL 


Using  the 
strength 
of  the 
system 


Constancy 


Punish- 
ments 


6.  Does  the  teacher  know  the  strength  of  the  support 
"upon  which  he  may  depend?  Does  he  utilize  the 
power  of  his  position  as  part  of  a  great  and  irresistible 
social  organization?  If  teachers  who  are  not  quitfe 
sure  of  their  success  with  this  problem  could  be  induced 
more  often  to  report  trouble,  actual  or  anticipated,  to 
their  superiors,  so  that  there  might  be  a  thorough 
understanding  about  it,  conditions  might  be  much 
improved.  The  assurance  of  support,  with  the  confi- 
dence in  a  course  of  treatment  which  has  been  decided 
upon  after  careful  consideration,  begets  confidence 
and  courage.  The  teacher  so  fortified  really  seems 
to  himself,  and  appears  to  his  pupils,  what  he  is  — 
the  agent  of  the  good  forces  of  society,  rightly  em- 
powered to  enforce  society's  dictum  against  those 
who  wrong  it. 

7.  The  teacher  must  be  especially  warned  never  to 
desert  a  standard  until  he  is  convinced  that  it  is  wrong. 

8.  The  subject  of  appropriate,  just,  and  helpful 
punishment  should  be  thoroughly  discussed  by  the 
teaching  force  of  every  school.  The  teachers,  rather 
than  the  school  board,  or  some  one  man  at  the  head  of 
a  system,  are  best  fitted  to  decide  what  types  of  pun- 
ishment are  necessary  or  advisable  in  any  given  com- 
munity. They  are  closer  to  the  pupils  in  their  daily 
lives;  they  know  their  home  environment  and  training 
-r-  often  the  most  important  factors  in  deciding  school 
punishments  —  better  than  anyone  else.  And  the 
carefully  considered  conclusion  of  the  whole  body  of 
teachers,  led  usually  by  those  who  have  had  longest 
experience  in  the  schools,  is  the  best  guide  for  the 
teacher  young  in  the  system. 


SUPERVISION   OF   DISCIPLINE  301 

9.  The  friendliness  following  a  reconciliation  should  Some 
be    complete.    A    supervisor   in   a    Western   normal  ISctions 
school  gave  her  teachers,  with  other  instructions,  this 
list  of  hints  for  disciplinary  management: 

Be  a  person  who  commands  the  respect  of  all. 

Make  your  requirements  just,  reasonable,  explicit. 

Use  the  conventional  forms  of  courtesy  in  directing 
pupils. 

Notice  and  correct  the  first  infraction  of  good  order. 

Be  tactful,  low-voiced,  firm.  \ 

Do  not  hastily  attribute  fault  to  a  child.  /        \ 

Do  not  expect  disorder;  assume  that  your  pupils  are 
anxious  to  do  right  until  they  prove  the  contrary. 

Provide  for  all  possible  emergencies. 

This  chapter  has  dealt  with  the  part  of  the  supervisor  The 

.  .  111  ^'     •    ^^  c  1  supervisor 

m  securmg  good  schoolroom  discipune  so  far  only  as  in  the 

that  duty  pertains  to  the  teachers  under  his  direc-  con^'^ty 

tion.    There  is  another  phase  of  the  possible  influence 

of  supervisors,  especially  superintendents  of  schools, 

which  deserves  at  least  a  passing  consideration.     This 

is  the  part  of  the  superintendent  of  schools  in  molding 

the  public  opinion  of  his  community.     The  man  who 

is  at  the  head  of  a  system  of  schools  in  a  city  or  town 

in  our  country  is  an  increasingly  important  individual. 

Aside  from  the  immense  potential  influence  he  wields 

as  a  teacher  of  the  next  generation,  he  is  looked  to  more 

and  more  as  an  authority  upon  the  questions  of  the 

day.     If  he  choose  to  do  so  he  may  exert  a  powerful 

influence  in  deciding  questions  of  public  economy  and 

morals.^ 

»  Thomas:  "  The  Teacher  and   the  Community,"   Educational 
Review,  May,  1910,  pp.  433  B. 


302  DISCIPLINE   OF   THE   SCHOOL 

His  right  With  the  good  excuse  that  he  is  deaHng  with  condi- 

^^^  tions  that  vitally  affect  his  immediate  sphere  of  use- 

fulness, if  any  require  an  excuse  of  him,  the  school 
superintendent  may  and  should  fight  those  things  in 
the  life  of  his  city  that  hurt  the  life  of  his  school.  He 
has  a  very  direct  interest  in  playgrounds,  parks,  and 
social  centers.  He  has  a  right  to  say  something  about 
the  motion  pictures  that  are  shown  in  local  theaters, 
the  posters  that  adorn  the  great  billboards,  the  tone  of 
the  newspapers  that  the  people  read.  All  these  things 
react  for  good  or  for  evil  upon  the  spirit  and  order 
of  the  schools.  The  influence  of  the  superintendent, 
wielded  directly  as  a  member  of  ofiicial  bodies,  or 
through  the  press,  or  indirectly  through  women's  clubs 
and  good  citizenship  leagues,  may  help  materially  to 
better  those  conditions  of  health  and  morals  that  re- 
act so  strongly  upon  the  children  in  the  schools.  By 
exercising  this  prerogative  of  his  position  the  superin- 
tendent reaches  back  to  the  ultimate  causes,  to  the  real 
sources  of  school  disorder,  which  are  ignorance  and 
selfishness,  permeating  still  the  whole  laboring,  strug- 
gling mass  of  humanity  and  manifesting  themselves 
not  only  in  the  deliberate  sins  of  responsible  men  and 
women,  but  also  in  the  blind  lawlessness  of  misguided 
children. 

Summary 

In  supervising  discipline,  the  duties  of  the  super- 
visor include  analyzing  the  situation,  to  find  both  the 
nature  and  cause  of  the  trouble;  and  then  suggesting 
the  remedy  which  should  be  applied.  His  duties  in- 
clude giving  every  possible  aid  to  the  teacher  in  charge. 
He  may  help  by  stiffening  a  weak  will,  by  pointing  out 


SUPERVISION   OF   DISCIPLINE  303 

the  signs  of  trouble  that  the  teacher  may  be  upon  his 
guard,  giving  information  of  devices  which  will  obviate 
trouble,  suggesting  auxiliary  interests  that  will  stim- 
ulate interest,  supporting  the  teacher  in  his  own  e£Forts, 
and  suggesting  proper  means  of  punishing  ojBfenders. 
Besides  his  work  with  his  own  teachers,  the  superin- 
tendent should  use  his  influence  to  better  those  com- 
munity conditions  which  affect  the  spirit  and  character 
of  the  school. 


APPENDIX  I 
A  CLASSIFIED  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

I.   The  History  of  Discipline 

CoMPAYEi,  History  of  Pedagogy,  271-276. 

DuTTON  and  Snedden,  Administration  of  Public  Education 
in  the  U.  S.,  511  ff. 

Froebel,  Education  of  Man. 

Monroe,  Text  Book  in  the  History  of  Education,  307-312. 

Monroe,  Brief  Course  in  the  History  of  Education,  255-259. 

O'Shea,  Education  as  Adjustment,  69-73. 

Quick,  Educational  Reformers,  318-333. 

Rousseau,  Emile,  41-67. 

Seeley,  History  of  Education,  96-100. 

Sheldon,  The  Ethical  Function  of  the  School;  Education, 
25:321.  (1905) 

Swift,  Mind  in  the  Making,  95. 

Thompson,  Self- Government  by  Students  in  School  and  Col- 
lege, Soc.  Ed.  Quar.  1:41. 

n.   The  Social  Aspect 

Chancellor,    Educational    Outlook,    Journal    of    Pedagogy, 

Mar.  18,  1906,  209-220. 
Cooley,  Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order;  chaps,  x,  xi,  xii. 
Cronson,  Pupil  Self-Government,  17  ff. 
Greard,  The  Spirit  of  Discipline  in  Education;    Education, 

5:134,  259. 
Hall,  Adolescence,  chap.  xv. 

Henderson,  The  Principles  of  Education,  sees.  57,  61. 
Hendrick,  Six  Thousand  Girls  at  School;    McClure's,  May, 

1913- 


3o6  APPENDIX  I 

Laurie,  The  Training  of  Teachers;    chap,  on  Authority  in 

Relation  to  Discipline. 
O'Shea,  Social  Development  and  Education,  Part  I. 
Parkinson,  Individuality  and  Social  Adjustment  as  Means  and 

Ends  in  Education;   Education,  29: 16,  104. 
Potter,   Social  Organization  in  the  High  School;    N.  E.  A., 

1912,  181  ff. 
Pyle,  Outlines  of  Educational  Psychology,  chap.  vi. 
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and    High   Schools    in  Relation  with    the  University  of 

Chicago;     School    Review,    Jan.,    1905.    A    comparative 

consideration  of  secret  and  open  H.  S.  organizations. 
Rinaker,  a  Socialized  High  School;   School  and  Home  Edwa- 

tion,  Nov.,  191 2. 
RowE,  Habit  Formation  and  the  Science  of  Teaching,  239-243. 
Small,  Demands  of  Sociology  upon  Pedagogy;  N.  E.  A.,  1894, 

174-184. 
Wells,  The  Parent  Problem;    School  Review,  Oct.  13,  1905, 

635-641. 
Wetzel,    Student   Organizations   in   a   High   School;    School 

Review,  May,  1905,  429-433. 

m.   The  Psychological  Aspect 

Bagley,  Problems  of  School  Discipline;  School  and  Home 
Education,  191 2,  pp.  128,  204,  243,  286;  1913,  pp.  7,  47. 

Barnes,  The  Pupil  as  a  Social  Factor;  N.  E.  A.,  1896,  184-189. 

Chancellor,  Our  City  Schools,  chap.  vi. 

CoLviN,  Some  Facts  in  Partial  Justification  of  the  So-Called 
Dogma  of  Formal  Discipline;  University  of  Illinois  School 
of  Education,  Bulletin  No.  .2. 

Practical  Results  of  Recent  Studies  in  Educational  Psy- 
chology; School  Review,  May,  1913,  307  ff. 

Fiske,  The  Meaning  of  Infancy. 

FoRBUSH,  The  Social  Pedagogy  of  Children;  Fed.  Sem.  vii 
(1900),  307-346. 

Griggs,  Moral  Education,  chap.  xvii. 

James,  Psychology  (ed.  1910),  chap,  on  Attention,  217-220. 

Maennel,  Auxiliary  Education,  chap.  xii. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  307 

O'Shea,  Social  Development  and  Education,  Part  I, 

Dynamic  Factors  in  Education,  chap.  i. 
RowE,  Habit  Formation  and  the  Science  of  Teaching,  chaps. 

V,  xii. 
Sheldon,  The  Institutional  Activities  of  American  Children; 

Amer.  Journal  of  Psychology,  ix:  425-448. 
Swift,  Mind  in  the  Making,  chap.  ii. 

Some  Criminal  Tendencies  of  Boyhood;  Ped.Sem.,  8:  65-91. 
White,  Elements  of  Pedagogy,  320-328. 
YocuM,  Culture,  Discipline,  and  Democracy. 
YoDER,  A  Study  of  the  Boyhood  of  Great  Men;    Fed.  Sent., 

iii,  No.  I. 

IV.   The  Physiological  Aspect 

Briggs,  Modern  American  School  Buildings. 

Burks  and  Burks,  Health  and  the  School. 

Dressler,  The  Duty  of  the  State  in  the  Medical  Inspection 
of  Schools;  N.  E.  A.,  191 2:  257  ff. 

HoAG,  The  Health  Index  of  Children. 

Johnson,  The  Playground  as  a  Factor  in  School  Hygiene. 

KoTELMANN,  School  Hygiene. 

Marbles,  Sanitary  Conditions  for  Schoolhouses. 

RowE,  The  Lighting  of  Schoolrooms. 

Physical  Nature  of  the  Child  and  How  to  Study  It. 

Shaw,  School  Hygiene. 

Sheperd,  Some  Experiments  on  the  Ventilation  of  a  School- 
room; Edtic.  Bi-Monthly,  Oct.,  1913. 

V.  Discipline  in  its  Relation  to  School  Organization 

Clapp,  Unrecognized  Causes  of  Corporal  Punishment;  Educa- 
tion, 25  (1905):  490. 

Dewey,  School  and  Society,  29  ff. 

DuTTON,  Discipline;  N.  E.  A.,  1889:487-492. 

Griggs,  Moral  Education,  chaps,  xiii,  xiv. 

Jackman,  The  Relation  of  School  Organization  to  Instruction; 
Soc.  Educ.  Quar.,  i:  56  ff. 

O'Shea,  Social  Development  and  Education,  261  ff, 

Scott,  Social  Education,  13  ff.,  82. 


3o8  APPENDIX  I 

VI.   Punishment 
Arnold,  School  and  Class  Management,  304-305, 
Bagley,  Classroom  Management,  chap,  viii,  esp.  11 8-1 2 2. 
Baldwin,  Art  of  School  Management,  176  fif. 
Chancellor,  Class  Teaching  and  Management,  160-174. 
Button,  School  Management,  104  fif. 
Griggs,  Moral  Education,  chaps,  xv,  xvi. 
Hall,  Adolescence,  I,  402. 
Harrison,  A  Study  of  Child  Nature,  chap.  vi. 
Hughes,  Answers  to  Mr.  Sabin's  Questions;  Journal  of  Educa- 
tion, 63:485. 
Keith,  Elementary  Education,  119-133,  288. 
Kellogg,  School  Management,  chap.  viii. 
Landon,  School  Management,  338-360. 
O'Shea,  Social  Development  and  Education,  chaps,  xiv,  xv. 
Perry,  Management  of  a  City  School,  253,  254,  274,  279. 
ROARK,  Economy  in  Education,  44-46. 
RuGH  et  al.,  Moral  Training  in  the  Public  Schools,  39  £[. 
Seeley,  a  New  School  Management,  chap.  viii. 
Storm,  Discipline  as  the  Result  of  Self-Government;  N.  E.  A., 

1894: 764- 
Sully,  The  Teacher's  Handbook  of  Psychology,  562-568. 
Taylor,  Class  Management  and  Discipline,  chap.  v. 
Tompkins,  Philosophy  of  School  Management,  173  ff. 
Thompson,  Self-Govemment  by  Students  in  School  and  College; 

Soc.  Educ.  Quar.,  1:41. 
Thring,  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching,  chap.  xiii. 
White,  School  Management,  207-216. 

VII.   Pupil  Government 
Baldwin,  Self-Organized  Group  Work;  Soc.  Educ.  Quar.,  1:39. 
Buck,  Boys'  Self-Goveming  Clubs. 

Chancellor,  Class  Teaching  and  Management,  149-150,  155. 
Clapp,  Self-Govemment  in  Public  Schools;   Education,  29:335. 
Clark,  Self -Organized  Group  Work  in  the  High  School;   Soc. 

Educ.  Quar.,  i:  55. 
Cronson,  Pupil  Self-Government,  Its  Theory  and  Practice. 
Dewey,  School  and  Society. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  309 

George,  George  Junior  Republic. 

Henderson,  The  Principles  of  Education,  sees.  44,  45,  46,  47. 

Jackman,  The  Relation  of  School  Organization  to  Instruction; 

Soc.  Educ.  Quar.,  i:  55. 
Jenks,  Voluntary  Group  Work;  Soc.  Educ.  Quar.,  i:  33. 
Johnson,  Education  by  Plays  and  Games. 
Nelson,  Group  Work  in  a  Grammar  Grade;  Soc.  Educ.  Quar., 

i:  29. 
O'Shea,  Social  Development  and  Education,  313  ff.,  317  ff. 
Phillips,  PupU  Cooperation  in  School  Government;  Education, 

22  (1902):  538-554. 
RoARK,  Economy  in  Education,  97-8. 
RiDDiE,  The  New  School  at  Abbotsholme;   Soc.  Educ.  Quar., 

1:53- 
Scott,  Social  Education,  chaps,  iii-viii. 
Shaw,  Some  Experiments  in  Self-Organized  Group  Work;  Soc. 

Edtu:.  Quar.,  i:  16. 
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Nov.,  1908:675-678. 
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Edtic.  Rev.,  37:  519  ff. 
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Quar.,  i:4i. 
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37:821-823. 
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N.  E.  A.,  1894:816. 
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Addams,  The  Spirit  of  Youth  and  the  City  Street. 
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3IO  APPENDIX  I 

Dewey,  Ethical  Principles  Underlying  Education. 

Moral  Principles  of  Education. 

My  Pedagogic  Creed. 

School  and  Society. 
Griggs,  Moral  Education,  chaps,  xviii,  xix. 
Harris,  The  Relation  of  School  DiscipUne  to  Moral  Education; 

Nat.  Herbart.  Soc.  Year  Book,  1897,  iii:  58. 
Laurie,  Authority  in  Relation  to  Discipline.     (London,  1882.) 
Myers,  Moral  Training  in  the  School;  Ped.  Sem.,  xiii;  409-460. 
O'Shea,  Social  Development  and  Education,  265-272. 
Raymont,  Principles  of  Education. 

Moral  Aspects  of  Training. 
RuGH  et  al.,  Moral  Training  in  the  Public  Schools. 
Sadler,  (ed.)  Moral  Instruction  and  Training  in  Schools,  i. 
SissoN,  The  Essentials  of  Character,  chap.  xi. 
Spiller,  Report  on  Moral  Instruction  and  on  Moral  Training, 
chap.  ii. 

IX.  Habit  Formation 

Bair,  The  Practice  Curve;    Psychological  Review,  Monograph 

Supplement  No.  19,  (1902):  1-70. 
Bawden,  Study  of  Lapses;    Psychological  Review,  Monograph 

Supplement,  iii.  No.  4,  pp.  1-122. 
Bradley,  Work  and  Play,  chap.  vi. 
Gannett,  Blessed  be  Drudgery.    (New  York,  1886.) 
Groos,  Play  of  Man. 

Play  of  Animals. 
Halleck,  Education  of  the  Central  Nervous  System,  222-237. 
Hinsdale,  Art  of  Study,  177-181. 
James,  Principles  of  Psychology,  i,  chap,  iv;    also  in  Briefer 

Course. 

Talks  to  Teachers,  chap.  viii. 
Johnson,  Experiments  on  Motor-Education;  Studies  from  the 

Yale  Psychology  Laboratory,  series  i,  vol.  x,  pp.  81  ff. 
Judd,  Relation  of  Special  Training  to  General  Intelligence; 

Educ.  Rev.,  ix,  pp.  28-42. 
KiRKPATRiCK,  Fundamentals  of  Child-Study,  186-350. 
Oppenheim,  Mental  Growth  and  Control,  chap.  vii. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  311 

Pyle,  Outlines  of  Educational  Psychology,  chaps,  x,  xi,  xii, 
SissON,  Essentials  of  Character,  chap.  iv. 
Stout,  Analytical  Psychology,  i,  258-269. 
Sully,  The  Human  Mind,  ii,  chap,  xviii. 
Thorndike,  Principles  of  Teaching,  222-6. 

Elements  of  Psychology,  chaps,  xiii  and  xix. 
TiTCHENER,  Outlines  of  Psychology,  chap.  x. 
White,  Art  of  Teaching,  chaps,  i,  ii,  iii,  vii. 

X.  Formal  Discipline 

Angell,  The  Doctrine  of  Formal  DiscipUne  in  the  Light  of  the 
Principles  of  General  Psychology;   Educ.  Rev.,  June,  1908. 

Bain,  Education  as  a  Science,  139-42,  366-73. 

Bagley,  Educational  Values,  180-215. 

Baker,  Educational  Values;  N.  E.  A.,  1895: 197-203. 

Bennett,  Formal  Discipline;  Thesis  for  Doctorate,  Columbia, 
1905. 

CoLviN,  Some  Facts  in  Partial  Justification  of  the  So-Called 
Dogma  of  Formal  DiscipUne;  University  of  Illinois  School 
of  Education,  Bulletin  No.  2. 

CoovER  and  Angell,  General  Practice  Effect  of  Special  Exer- 
cise; Amer.  Jour,  of  Psychology,  1907,  328  ff. 

Hanus,  Educational  Aims  and  Educational  Values,  chap.  i. 

Heck,  Mental  Discipline  and  Educational  Values. 

Henderson,  A  Textbook  in  the  Principles  of  Education,  283- 

317- 
Hinsdale,  The  Dogma  of  Formal  Discipline;  Educ.  Rev.,  Sep. 

1894.    N.  E.  A.,  1894,  625-635. 

Studies  in  Education,  44-61. 

HoRNE,  Psychological  Principles  of  Education,  chap.  vi. 
Lewis,  A  Study  in  Formal  Discipline;  School  Review,  xiii:  281- 

292  (1905). 
Monroe,  A  Textbook  in  the  History  of  Education,  505-532. 
O'Shea,  Education  as  Adjustment,  246-283. 
Thorndike,  Educational  Psychology,  chap.  viii. 
Tompkins,  Philosophy  of  Teaching,  265-267. 
YocuM,  Culture,  Discipline  and  Democracy. 
YouMANS,  Culture  Demanded  by  Modem  Life,  1-56. 


APPENDIX  II 
QUESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  i 

Chapter  I  —  The  Place  and  Work  of  the  School  in  Modern  Life 

1.  What  is  your  justification  of  the  American  school  system? 

2.  What   are   the   social   institutions   of   modern   life?    The 

function  of  each?    Of  which  ones  are  you  a  part? 

3.  What  purposes  does  the  school  serve  in  the  training  of 

children?    The  home?    The  church? 

4.  What  is  the  basis  of  the  authority  of  the  school? 

5.  Can  a  parent  grant  or  deny  to  a  teacher  the  right  to  punish 

his  child? 

6.  Distinguish  plainly  the  part  of  school  and  of  church  in  the 

ethical  training  of  children. 

7.  What  agencies  help  in  establishing  friendly  and  helpful 

relations  between  home  and  school? 

Chapter  II  —  The  Modes  of  School  Government 

1.  Name  the  five  modes  of  control  in  the  order  of  their  de- 

velopment. 

2.  Why  did  early  schoolmasters  demand  obedience  without 

questioning  their  right  to  demand  it? 

3.  Is  it  still  justifiable?    Is  it  the  best  mode  to  use?    When? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  "socially  untrained"   people?    Have 

you  any  in  your  school?    In  your  community? 

5.  What  mode  is  used  in  the  training  of  animals?    Why? 

6.  What  are  usually  the  results  of  giving  unlimited  freedom  to 

those  not  used  to  it?     Give  an  example  from  school 
life. 

^The  questions  given  are  intended,  not  only  to  test  the  thoroughness 
with  which  the  text  is  read  and  the  understanding  of  its  content,  but 
also  to  stimulate  new  thought  and  further  research  into  the  questions 
discussed. 


QUESTIONS   FOR   STUDY  313 

7.  Suppose  a  pupil  suddenly  becomes  ungovernably  angry  in 

school.  If  he  begins  to  throw  books  and  ink-bottles  at 
his  classmates,  what  would  you  do?    Why? 

8.  When  does  the  method  of  absolute  authority  normally 

give  way  to  others?    Why? 

9.  Is  it  wrong  to  do  right  in  the  hope  of  receiving  a  reward? 

10.  What  rewards  may  we  rightly  set  before  pupils  as  incen- 

tives? 

11.  Is  it  wrong  to  tell  the  class  who  stands  highest? 

12.  What  is  the  highest  selfish  good  for  which  a  student  may 

work? 

13.  When  do  pupils  begin  seriously  to  consider  their  own  in- 

terest? 

14.  What  efifect  has  the  desire  for  self-improvement  had  upon 

the  course  of  study? 

15.  Name  six  aims  which  self-interest  should  suggest  to  the 

student. 

16.  What  is  the  danger  to  morals  in  the  emphasis  of  the  mode 

of  Personal  Influence? 

17.  Are  the  best  teachers  you  know  the  most  influential  with 

their  pupils? 

18.  Do  teachers  who  love  their  pupils  have  always  much  influ- 

ence over  them? 

19.  What  is  the  danger  connected  with  the  mode  of  personal 

influence? 

20.  Has  a  teacher  a  right  to  influence  a  pupil  in  making  decisions? 

21.  Does  it  weaken  the  will  of  a  child  for  him  to  yield  to  the 

influence  of  an  older  person?    Of  another  child? 

22.  Can  a  teacher,  even  if  he  wants  to,  divert  the  allegiance 

of  a  pupil  from  himself  to  the  school  or  to  society? 

23.  If  a  group  of  boys  or  of  girls  have  formed  a  chque  which 

ostentatiously  excludes  one  or  more  pupils,  should  they 
be  forced  to  associate  with  those  for  whom  they  do  not 
care? 

24.  Have  you  ever  known  teachers  to  influence  pupils  against 

other  teachers?    What  do  these  teachers  need? 


314  APPENDIX  n 

Chapter  III  —  The  Modes  of  School  Government  (continued) 

1.  What  is  meant  by  the  "Impenetrability  of  Attention"? 

2.  Why  do  you  forbid  the  eating  of  apples  while  pupils  are 

studying?    Why  not  have  a  kitten  in  the  schoolroom? 

3.  Why  is  "busy-work"  confined  mainly  to  the  lower  grades? 

4.  Name  some  good  forms  of  seatwork  for  children  of  six, 

nine,  and  twelve  years  respectively. 

5.  Do  the  children  in  your  school  organize  in  clubs?    For 

what  purpose,  if  so?    Do  they  have  officers  and  dues? 

6.  What  kind  of  clubs  flourish  among  the  grown  people  of 

your  community?    Is  there  any  apparent  relation  be- 
tween the  children's  and  their  parents'  organizations? 

7.  Is  it  a  good  plan  to  organize  the  High  School  into  two  rival 

literary  societies?    Why? 

8.  Give  four  reasons  for  the  occasional  failure  of  High  School 

organizations. 

9.  What  are  the  objections  to  fraternities  in  the  High  School? 

10.  How  would  you  go  about  organizing  a  picture-study  club? 

A  basket-ball  team?    A  debating  society? 

11.  Should  members  of  athletic  teams  be  compelled  to  show 

p)assing  grades  in  all  their  studies,  or  only  in  a  majority? 

12.  Why  do  High  School  students  love  to  give  plays? 

13.  What  abilities  and  emotions  may  be  utilized  to  give  health- 

ful employment  to  the  energies  of  adolescence? 

Chapter  IV  —  The  Modes  of  School  Government  (continued) 

1.  May  the  mode  of  social  consciousness  be  used  in  the  primary 

room? 

2.  May  it  be  used  with  all  High  School  pupils? 

3.  What  is  the  first  social  institution  the  child  meets?    The 

next?    Another? 
3.   Give  an  example  of  the  change  from  individual  to  social 
aims  in  a  little  child.    In  an  older  one. 

5.  How  do  children  punish  each  other  for  unsocial  conduct? 

Does  it  usually  effect  a  reform? 

6.  Give  four  great  principles  that  govern  a  social  institution. 


QUESTIONS   FOR   STUDY  315 

7.  Define  the  four  types  of  school  organization  which  utilize 

the  feeling  of  social  obligation  in  children. 

8.  Should  privileges,  such  as  citizenship  in  a  school  city,  be 

granted  upon  the  child's  attaining  a  certain  age,  or  upon 
his  presenting  other  qualifications?  Should  every  person 
who  attains  twenty-one  years  be  a  voting  citizen  of  our 
country?  Are  girls  allowed  to  vote  in  school  cities  and 
states? 

9.  Do  children  resent  the  control  of  other  children?    Should 

they?    Do  they  resent  the  control  of  grown  people? 

10.  Why  does  pupil  government  entail  more  work  on  the  part 

of  teachers? 

11.  Is  lawlessness  lessened  when  pupils  are  allowed  to  make 

their  own  school  regulations? 

Chapter  V  —  Recent  Developments  in  American  Life  as  they 
A  feet  the  Question  of  Discipline 

1.  Name  five  great  characteristic  influences  which  have  served 

to  modify  methods  of  government  in  American  schools. 

2.  What  proportion  of  the  teachers  in  your  state  are  women 

today?    Fifty  years  ago? 

3.  Is  the  present  tendency  toward  more,  or  fewer  men  teachers? 

4.  What  bad  effects  has  the  feminization  of  the  American 

teaching  force  had? 

5.  Is  an  interested  child  always  a  good  child? 

6.  What  are  the  good  and  the  bad  sides  of  toleration?    Are 

Americans  too  tolerant? 

7.  Do  you  believe  in  good  comradeship  between  pupils  and 

teachers?  To  what  extent?  Is  the  almost  reverential 
attitude  of  a  German  child  toward  his  teacher  a  good 
thing?    Should  it  be  encouraged  in  America? 

8.  Is  the  study  of  Latin  and  other  cultural  subjects  increasing 

or  decreasing  in  this  country?    Why? 

9.  How  have  methods  of  discipline  changed  in  your  town  or 

district  in  the  last  twenty  years?  The  last  fifty?  For 
the  better? 


3i6  APPENDIX  n 

Chapter    VI  —  The    Prescription    of    Disciplinary    Activities 

1.  What  is  meant  by  "Formal  Discipline"? 

2.  Does  mental  power  come  from  the  mastery  of  Mathematics 

or  Latin? 

3.  How?    State  the  general  rule  upon  which  our  working 

theory  is  based. 

4.  What  process  must  be  added  to  practice  to  insure  mental 

training? 

5.  What  are  "disciplinary  activities"? 

6.  Their  object? 

7.  Have  we  a  right  to  force  a  child  to  learn  a  lesson  when  he 

does  not  want  to?     Can  we  do  it? 

8.  Should  children  be  compelled  to  learn  to  write,  for  instance, 

when  they  greatly  dislike  to  practice  the  exercises? 

9.  What  moral  right  has  the  State  to  force  children  to  go  to 

school? 

10.  What  moral  right  has  the  State  to  force  a  man  to  clean  up 

his  back  yard  or  send  his  children  to  school? 

11.  What  habits  are  prescribed  for  children  in  the  elementary 

school? 

12.  Can  unselfishness  be  prescribed  successfully? 

13.  If  not,  is  there  any  kind  of  prescription  which  will  develop 

unselfishness? 

14.  What  is  meant  by  "race  experience"? 

15.  How  do  courses  of  study  in  schools  originate? 

16.  Who  are  the  authors  of  the  present  conflict  with  prescribed 

courses  of  study?    Why? 

17.  Do  the  prescribed  studies  in  your  school  answer  the  real 

needs  of  your  pupils? 

18.  If  not,  what  need  is  neglected?    What  study  will  answer 

this  requirement? 

19.  What  needs  are  universal,  common  to  all,  of  whatever  class 

or  vocation? 

20.  What  is  the  final  object  of  prescription? 

21.  Name  two  applications  of  the  theory  of  the  Right  of  Pre- 

scription to  the  question  of  school  discipline. 

22.  What  are  the  outcomes  of  prescription  for  conduct? 


QUESTIONS   FOR   STUDY  317 

23.  If  a  child  has  an  orange,  and  refuses  to  divide  it  with  his 

brother,  should  he  be  compelled  to  do  so?    Why? 

24.  What  exercises  in  your  school  tend  to  give  control  of  the 

body? 

25.  If  a  child  is  really  very  jealous  of  another,  is  it  right  to 

teach  him  to  conceal  this  jealousy?  Does  not  the  expres- 
sion of  a  feeling  tend  to  dissipate  it?  Does  such  conceal- 
ment develop  hypocrisy? 

Chapter  VII  —  The  Disciplinary  Process 

1.  What  are  the  two  phases  of  the  disciplinary  process? 

2.  What  is  the  first  requisite  for  good  order? 

3.  In  what  ways  does  the  teacher  communicate  his  ideal  to 

his  pupils? 

4.  What  is  the  most  important  means  of  realizing  the  ideal  of 

good  conduct? 

5.  State  the  relation  of  pleasure  and  pain  to  habit  formation. 

6.  State  the  steps  in  the  process  of  building  a  habit. 

7.  What  is  the  greatest  obstacle  to  the  building  of  good  habits? 

8.  Is  it  possible  to  cure  children  of  faults  of  Enghsh  that  they 

have  practiced  all  their  lives,  and  hear  daily  at  home? 
How? 

9.  How  would  you  cure  a  boy  of  the  habit  of  expectorating 

ujwn  the  floor?  Of  greeting  the  mistakes  of  his  class- 
mates with  a  horse-laugh?    Of  slamming  doors? 

10.  What  is  the  use  of  teaching  moral  axioms? 

11.  Do  you  teach  your  pupils  any  general  principles  which  will 

enable  them  to  formulate  a  plan  of  action  when  face  to 
face  with  a  difficult  new  situation? 

12.  How  much  of  the  work  of  your  schoolroom  may  be  included 

under  the  head  of  discipline  in  its  broadest  sense? 

13.  How  is  the  word  "discipline"  used  in  this  book? 

14.  What  does  "formal  discipline"  mean? 

15.  Distinguish   the  negative  and  positive  phases  of  school 

discipline.  Its  constructive,  destructive  and  recon- 
structive phases. 

16.  What  is  the  first  requisite  for  good  order? 

17.  The  next? 


3i8  APPENDIX  II 

1 8.  Name  four  methods  of  establishing  the  ideal  of  good  order 

in  the  minds  of  pupils. 

19.  What  is  the  greatest  single  element  in  realizing  an  ideal 

of  good  order? 

20.  Explain  the  instinctive  basis  of  habit. 

21.  How  may  habits  in  the  forming  be   encouraged  or  dis- 

couraged? 

22.  When  a  habit  has  once  been  established,  may  drill  cease? 

23.  Why  are  exceptions  in  a  drill-series  so  harmful? 

24.  Why  is  drill  so  much  more  important  in  the  lower  grades 

than  in  the  upper? 

25.  Why  should  general  principles  be  taught,  if  habit  is  so  much 

quicker  and  surer? 

26.  Is  it  a  good  thing  to  allow  a  child  to  grow  up  without  know- 

ing anything  of  the  world's  greatest  evils?  Can  general 
principles  be  given  him  that  will  enable  him  to  meet 
unfamiliar  situations  wisely? 

Chapter  VIII  —  The  Spirit  of  the  School 

1.  What  persons  contribute  to  the  school  spirit? 

2.  What  else  has  an  influence? 

3.  Name  the  characteristics  of  a  good  environment. 

4.  May  any  school  have  a  good  spirit? 

5.  What  is  the  connection  between  a  soured  spirit  in  a  teacher 

and  the  atmosphere  of  the  school? 

6.  Why  will  not  children  always  respond  to  love?    What 

influences  prevent  it? 

7.  What  methods  do  you  use  with  lazy  children? 

8.  Suppose  a  little  girl  likes  to  bring  her  doll  to  school.    Should 

she  be  allowed  to  do  so?    If  so,  under  what  conditions? 

9.  List  the  elements  that  make  for  school  unity. 

10.  Has  your  school  a  distinctive  holiday?    How  many  festi- 

vals do  you  celebrate  in  a  year? 

11.  Why  are  school  gala  days  celebrated  chiefly  in  the  lower 

grades?  Have  older  children  lost  their  taste  for  good 
times? 


QUESTIONS   FOR   STUDY  319 

Chapter  IX  —  An  Analysis  of  Offenses  Common  in  American 

Schools 

1.  What  is  the  basis  of  classification  used  in  making  this 

analysis  of  offenses?    Name  the  seven  classes  of  offenses. 

2.  Which  of  the  causes  of  bad  order  given  may  be  removed, 

and  which,  if  any,  are  inevitable? 

3.  Which  of  the  causes  given  are  operating  in  your  school? 

4.  What  means  aside  from  regular  lessons  do  you  have  for 

fully  and  wholesomely  occupying  the  time  of  your  pupils? 

5.  Do  you  know  of  a  school  in  which  opposition  to  the  teacher 

seems  to  be  a  tradition?  How  may  such  a  tradition  be 
changed? 

6.  Is  this  tradition  the  fault  of  teachers,  or  does  it  exist  in 

spite  of  the  attitude  and  work  of  teachers? 

7.  What  constitutes  a  set  of  ideal  conditions  so  far  as  phys- 

ical environment  is  concerned,  for  your  school?  What 
stands  in  the  way  of  reaHzing  this  ideal? 

8.  What  differences  in  treatment  from  that  accorded  younger 

children,  should  be  given  to  adolescents?  Have  you 
adolescent  pupils  in  your  school?  What  books  have  you 
read  upon  this  subject? 

9.  How  may  simple  tests  for  hearing  and  sight  be  given  in  an 

ordinary  schoolroom?  Have  you  the  equipment  in  your 
school? 

10.  What  constitutes  a  good  diet  for  school  children?    Are  the 

children  in  your  school  well  fed? 

11.  Is  a  teacher  justified  in  reading  a  note  written  in  school? 

12.  Is  a  teacher  justified  in  asking  one  pupil  to  betray  another? 

13.  How  would  you  classify  the  offense  of  reading  cheap,  harm- 

ful yellow-back  novels  in  the  school-room?    Why? 

14.  What  aid  does  the  law  give  to  teachers  in  your  state  in 

fighting  the  cigarette  evil? 

Chapter  X  —  Punishment 

I.  How  do  you  justify  the  punishment  of  wrong-doing  theo- 
retically?   Practically? 

3.  What  are  the  three  functions  of  punishment  which  Saleilles 
gives? 


320  APPENDIX  n 

3.  What  have  been  the  motives  for  punishment  as  given  in 

schools? 

4.  What   do   criminologists   mean   by   "individualization   of 

punishment"? 

5.  How  else  may  the  term  be  used? 

6.  What  objects  are  served  in  punishing  a  boy  for  truancy  by 

depriving  him  of  a  place  on  his  school  ball  team?  Do 
you  consider  this  a  good  punishment?  Why?  What 
would  have  been  a  better  one,  if  any? 

7.  An  overgrown,  idle  boy  forced  a  little  girl  sitting  in  front 

of  him  to  show  him  her  paper  on  examination  day,  by 
pinching  her  arm,  and  threatening  to  beat  her  on  the 
way  home  if  she  told  the  teacher.  Would  you  punish 
this  at  once,  or  delay  punishment?  How  would  you 
punish?  Why?  Did  the  little  girl  deserve  punishment 
for  showing  the  answers? 

8.  What  class  of  offenses  should  be  punished  at  once? 

9.  When  should  punishment  be  delayed? 

Chapter  XI  —  Punishment  (continued) 

1.  What  constitutes  the  undesirability  of  threats,  detention 

after  school,  tasks,  whippings,  and  nagging,  as  punish- 
ments? What  other  punishments  in  use  do  you  con- 
demn? 

2.  Discuss  Saturation  as  a  method  of  punishment. 

3.  What  do  you  think  of  scrubbing  the  mouths  of  children 

guilty  of  using  bad  language? 

4.  Where  is  the  use  of  sarcasm  justifiable?    Give  an  example. 

5.  What  characteristic  of  school  organization  forms  the  basis 

for  effective  punishment?    What  instincts  also  give  basis? 

6.  State  the  kinds  of  punishment  recommended  by  Colgrove. 

7.  What  two  methods  are  there  for  dealing  with  a  child  who 

refuses  to  comply  with  the  common  requirements  for  the 
school? 

8.  Is  isolation  a  justifiable  remedy?    Some  educators  consider 

it  a  medieval  expedient.    Why? 

9.  Suppose  a  punishment  fails  to  reform  the  offender.    Is  it 

therefore  a  failure? 


QUESTIONS   FOR   STUDY  321 

10.  What  do  you  think  of  the  punishment  of  making  a  child 

stand  in  the  corner? 

11.  What  privileges  do  you  grant  as  reward  for  good  behavior 

and   work?    What   privileges   are   withdrawn   for   poor 
conduct? 

12.  What  constitutes  a  justification  for  suspension?    For  ex- 

pulsion? 

13.  Should  school  boards  forbid  corporal  punishment  in  schools? 

14.  Has  the  order  improved  or  deteriorated  in  cities  where 

corporal  punishment  is  forbidden,  since  such  prohibition 
went  into  effect? 

15.  Which  forms  of  corporal  punishment  are  advisable? 

16.  What  forms  of  punishment  are  advisable  as  a  substitute  for 

corporal  pimishment? 

Chapter  XII  —  Preventive  Devices 

1.  What  preventive  of  bad  behavior  should  the  teacher  always 

prepare  before  his  school  begins? 

2.  What  are  the  reasons  for  not  discussing  or  disclosing  the 

punishment  for  mischief  with  the  children? 

3.  How  may  a  teacher  increase  the  respect  for  himself  where 

the  community  treats  him  slightingly? 

4.  Should  a  teacher,  when  appealed  to  to  settle  a  controversy, 

decline  to  do  so? 

5.  Suppose  you  disagree  with  your  chief  on  any  point  of  school 

policy.     What  is  your  duty? 

6.  Has  a  teacher  a  right  to  forbid  gum-chewing  upon  the 

school  grounds?    The  smoking  of  cigarettes? 

7.  Is  it  right  to  ask  a  pupil  to  be  good  for   the  sake  of 

the  teacher?    What  evil  is  liable  to  grow  out  of  this 
policy? 

8.  Should  there  be  a  regular  period  for  the  study  of  Ethics? 

9.  Name  Baldwin's  nine  factors  of  successful  discipline. 

10.  What  should  be  the  range  of  pitch  of  a  good  schoolroom 

voice  in  a  man?    In  a  woman? 

11.  Do  you  enunciate  clearly?    Does  this  have  anything  to  do 

with  the  order  of  your  schoolroom? 


322  APPENDIX  II 

12.  Name  the  ten  types  of  teachers  who  fail  in  discipline. 

Why,  in  each  case?  Especially,  how  does  the  8th  type  of 
teacher  fail?  Have  you  ever  noticed  that  this  type  of 
teacher  often  seems  very  successful? 

13.  Is  it  possible,  as  some  teachers  claim,  to  assign  work  which 

will  occupy  all  of  the  time  of  pupils?    Is  it  wise  to  do  it? 

14.  What  pupil-officers  could  advantageously  be  used  in  your 

school? 

15.  Have  you  known  pupils  to  decline  to  perform  duties  about 

the  schoolroom  and  school  premises?  What  was  the 
reason?    How  may  such  an  attitude  be  changed? 

16.  How  much  home  time  may  be  fairly  asked  of  pupils  in  the 

different  grades?  When  may  teachers  begin  to  ask  for 
home  time  for  school  work? 

17.  Do  your  pupils  like  the  standard  studies,  such  as  grammar 

and  arithmetic?  Do  you  have  time  to  make  them 
interesting?    Do  you  like  them  yourself? 

18.  Have  you  changed  your  opinion  about  any  study  that  you 

disliked  as  a  child?  Why?  Does  this  give  you  any 
hint  about  teaching? 

19.  Why  are  cooking,  manual  training,  and  sewing  so  popular? 

20.  Explain  the  two  kinds  of  weariness. 

21.  Give  four  reasons  for  lack  of  interest  in  lessons. 

22.  Is  the  dulness  of  lessons  an  excuse  for  not  learning  them? 

23.  If  you  make  every  effort  to  interest  children  in  the  work 

and  do  not  succeed,  what  may  be  the  reasons? 

24.  Is  it  true  that  "plain  Duty  has  gone  out  of  fashion"? 

25.  Can  you  blame  a  boy  for  refusing  to  study  that  which  has 

no  appeal  whatever  for  him? 

Chapter  XIII  —  Corrective  Devices  Founded  upon  the  Mode  of 
Absolute  Authority 

1.  Is  the  keeping  of  a  record  of  time  lost  by  pupils  who  leave 

the  room,  a  remedy  for  the  abuse  of  this  privilege  in  itself? 

2.  Should  the  teacher  mentioned  in  the  story  of  the  contest 

for  a  picnic,  have  allowed  the  losing  side  to  attend  the 
picnic?    Why? 


QUESTIONS   FOR   STUDY  323 

3.  Does  the  teacher  have  a  right  to  know  what  pupils  say  in 

whispering  in  school,  or  in  writing  notes?    Why? 

4.  Is  the  absolute  prohibition  of  whispering  wise?    Is  it  com- 

mon in  good  schools  now? 

5.  From  the  list  of  successive  steps  to  be  followed  by  teachers 

in  the  Jena  school,  make  out  one  for  American  teachers. 
Which  steps  do  you  omit,  and  why? 

6.  Make  out  a  similar  list  of  steps  to  be  used  in  correcting  a 

child  for  wUfvd  idleness. 

7.  Is  a  teacher  bound  to  listen  to  a  child  who  is  impertinent? 

8.  Why  is  it  wise  to  keep  a  written  record  of  misbehavior? 

9.  Make  out  a  sample  page  of  a  pupil's  record  book. 

10.  Why  shovdd  correspondence  between  parents  and  teachers 

pass  through  the  principal's  office? 

11.  Has  the  school  board  a  right  to  make  a  set  of  rules  for  the 

school?    Why?    Is  this  a  wise  measure  to  take? 

12.  Is  a  bad  rule  better  broken  than  kept? 

Chapter  XIV  —  Corrective  Devices  Founded  upon  the  Mode  of 
Personal  Influence 

1.  What  light  has  Judge  Lindsey's  work  thrown  upon  the 

"Boy  Problem"? 

2.  Do  all  teachers  who  want  to  be  the  friends  of  their  pupils 

succeed  in  establishing  friendly  relations? 

3.  Do  very  popular  teachers  usually  make  good  friends  of 

pupils? 

4.  What  characteristics  in  teachers  prevent  or  destroy  the 

confidence  of  pupils? 

5.  When  a  child  is  allowed  to  attend  classes  and  engage  in 

school  activities  on  parole,  should  the  other  children 
know  his  position? 

6.  What  motives  appeal  most  strongly  to  children  of  any  given 

age,  as  reasons  for  good  conduct? 

7.  Is  motivated  effort  as  effective  as  habit?    Is  it  as  economi- 

cal? 

8.  What  institutions  may  take  the  place  of  the  home  in  sup- 

pljring  motives  for  industry  and  good  conduct,  for  those 
children  whose  homes  do  not  give  such  motives? 


324  APPENDIX  II 

9.  Have  you  found  "moral  suasion"  an  effective  means  of 
control? 

10.  Why  did  not  Sam's  teacher  try  to  arouse  an  ambition  in 

him  to  become  a  lawyer  or  a  teacher? 

11.  Is  vocational  guidance  one  of  the  teacher's  functions? 

12.  Does  the  choice  of  a  vocation  have  any  marked  effect  upon 

the  conduct  of  pupils? 

13.  Should  a  teacher  endeavor  to  influence  the  opinions  of  his 

pupils  upon  questions  of  poUtics?    Of  reform?    Suppose 
the  reform  issues  have  broken  into  politics? 

Disciplinary  Devices  Founded  upon  the  Appeal  to  Personal  Interest 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  personal  gains  which  may  be  used  as 

incentives  for  good  conduct  in  school? 

2.  Do  you  believe  in  giving  prizes?    Why? 

3.  Are  money  prizes  intrinsically  wrong? 

4.  Name  five  classes  of  incentives. 

5.  What  three  classes  of  positive  incentives  does  Bagley  give? 

6.  Is  it  wrong  to  give  the  position  of  valedictorian  to  the 

graduate  having  the  best  record? 

7.  In  the  larger  life  outside  the  school,  do  honors  and  prizes 

go  to  the  brightest  and  most  industrious  people? 

8.  Are  numerical  grades  a  good  thing?    Why? 

9.  Is  a  school  excursion  a  justifiable  incentive  for  hard  work? 

10.  Should  an  examination  ever  be  given  as  a  punishment? 

Why? 

11.  List  the  ways  in  which  the  incentive  of  high  character  may 

be  used. 

12.  How  would  you  explain  to  a  child  the  relation  between  his 

present  behavior  and  his  ultimate  character? 

Chapter  XV  —  Disciplinary  Devices  (continued) 

1.  Is  room  or  school  loyalty  a  good  thing?    How  developed? 

2.  Do  the  pupils  of  your  school  feel  any  pride  in  the  school? 

Is  it  better  than  the  others  of  the  vicinity  in  any  way? 

3.  Are  the  school  children  of  your  county  proud  of  the  county 

system?    Do  they  know  anything  about  it?    Would  any 
good  come  of  telling  them  what  had  been  accomplished? 


QUESTIONS   FOR   STUDY  325 

4.  Do  school  fights  ever  occur  between  the  boys  of  your  school 

and  others?    Why? 

5.  How  do  you  arouse  school  pride  in  your  pupils? 

6.  Distinguish  between  pupil  government  and  self-government. 

7.  Do  you  have  monitors  in  your  room?    What  are  their 

duties? 

8.  Who  is  responsible  for  the  order  and  work  of  the  school? 

Can  this  responsibility  be  shifted? 

9.  Summarize  the  arguments  in  favor  of  pupil-government. 

10.  Also  those  against  it. 

11.  What  training  must  precede  the  delegation  of  government 

to  students? 

12.  What  is  the  best  feature  of  pupil-government?    May  this 

good  be  gained  in  any  other  way? 

13.  Suggest  a  practicable  and  helpful  morning  exercise  program 

for  your  school.  How  much  time  would  be  needed  for 
its  preparation?    Can  you  spare  this  time? 

Chapter  XVT  —  The  Supervision  of  Discipline 

1.  Should  a  superintendent  assume  the  final  authority  in  all 

matters  of  discipline?  Why  not  leave  it  with  the  indi- 
vidual teacher? 

2.  What  quality  in  a  teacher  is  most  valued  as  a  rule? 

3.  May  a  teacher  call  upon  a  principal  or  superintendent  to 

punish  a  child  for  her?    Is  he  bound  to  do  it? 
4-  What  are  the  four  questions  which  usually  show  the  source 
of  trouble  when  a  teacher  has  poor  government? 

5.  Where  did  you  get  your  ideal  of  school  order? 

6.  How  does  it  differ  from  the  ideal  of  order  of  the  generation 

past?  Can  you  imagine  a  still  better  one  than  the  one 
which  is  now  practicable? 

7.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  delight  that  some  children  take  in 

torturing  one  boy  or  girl  in  a  school?  How  can  this  be 
dealt  with? 

8.  Is  the  rule  of  the  majority  a  righteous  rule?    Suppose  a 

teacher  faces  a  school  which  has  decided  that  it  will  do  as 
it  pleases?  Can  the  school  ever  be  really  a  democracy? 
Does  this  show  that  the  principle  of  democracy  is  wrong? 


326  APPENDIX  II 

9.  Has  a  pupil  a  right  to  appeal  a  case  of  injustice,  or  of  what 

he  thinks  is  injustice,  to  the  principal?    What  should 

the  principal  do? 
lo.  Should  a  superintendent  ever  mix  in  the  political  affairs  of 

the  town  which  he  serves? 
n.  Is  your  school  properly  supervised?    If  not,  can  you  think 

of  a  scheme  to  improve  matters? 


APPENDIX  III 

BLANK  FORMS  FOR  USE  IN  SECURING  AND 
MAINTAINING  GOOD  ORDER 

I.  In  Town  or  City  School  Systems 
Forms  utilizing  the  positive  incentive  of  reward  oj  merit 


Certificate  of  Membership 

Public  School  No.  73,  Brooklyn,  New  York 

Punctual  and  Regtdar  Club 

This  certifies  that has  been  punctual  and  regular 

in  attendance  in  this  school  during  the  term beginning 

19 . . .  and    ending    19 .  . .  and    is,    therefore,   a 

Member  of  the  Punctual  and  Regular  Club  of  Public  School  No. 
73.  Membership  in  this  club  continues  as  long  as  a  pupil  is 
neither  late  in,  nor  absent  from,  this  school. 

Given  under  our  hands  and  seal  this day  of 

19... 

'. Class  Teacher. 

William  John  Morrison,  Principal. 


"Character  and  worth  are  the  highest  expressions  of  personality" 
Certificate  of  Membership 
Public  School  No.  73,  Brooklyn,  New  York 
The  Self  and  School  Improvement  League 
This   certifies   that of  the grade  was  punc- 
tual, regvdar  in  attendance,  industrious,  persevering,  studious, 

trustworthy,  and  courteous,  during  the  term  ending , 

19 ... ,  and  is,  therefore,  a  member  of  The  Self  and  School  Improve- 
ment League  of  this  school.    Membership  in  this  league  is  gained 


328  APPENDIX  in 

by  meritorious  effort,  good  work,  excellent  conduct,  punctuality 
and  regularity  during  the  term. 

Given   under    our   hands   and  seal    this day    of 

19... 

Class  Teacher. 

William  J.  Morrison,  Principal. 


Office  of  the  Principal  of  Public  School  Number  73 
To  Whom  It  May  Concern: 

We  take  pleasure   in   recommending 

who  has  been  a  pupil  in  this  school  for years  and  was 

graduated 19 has    been    punctual,    regular 

in  attendance,  industrious  and  successful  in  h . . .  work,  trust- 
worthy and  courteous. 

Respectfully, 


Teachers. 
It  gives  me  great  pleasure  to  endorse  these  statements. 


Principal. 
Forms  utilizing  the  negative  incentive  of  reporting  poor  work 
or  behavior 

1 

Public  School  73,  McDougal  St.,  Brooklyn 

19... 

M 

Dear 

failed  to  bring  in  the  written  home  work  in 

assigned  for  today.     Will  you  please  see  that  this  work  is  made 
up  and  not  neglected  in  the  future? 

Yours  very  respectfully, 

Teacher. 

Please  sign  and  return  to 

William  J.  Morrison,  Principal. 


BLANK   FORMS  329 

2 

Public  School  73,  McDougal  St.,  Brooklyn 

i9--. 

M 

Dear 

We    infer    from class    work    that is    neglecting 

home  study.  Not  more  than  one  hour  a  day  is  required,  and  if 
full  time  be  devoted  to  conscientious  study,  satisfactory  results 
are  quite  sure  to  follow.  Will  you  please  cooperate  with  us  by 
giving  h . . . .  the  opportunity  for  study  and  seeing  that  the  time 
is  used  for  that  purpose. 

Respectfully, 

Teacher. 

Please  sign  and  return  to 

William  J.  Morrison,  Principal. 

3 

Department  of  Education 

Boars  of  Education  of  the  City  of  New  York 

Office:  Park  avenue  and  sgth  street 

New  York 

Public   School   No Borough   of  

New  York, 19 ... . 

Mr 

Dear 

During  the  past  your  of  class  

has  been  deficient  in  the  following  particulars: 


.  Principal. 
.  Parent. 


33©  APPENDIX  III 

4 

Public  School  73, 
Rockaway  ave.  and  McDougal  St., 
Brookljm. 
M 

Dear 

I  am  sorry  to  inform  you  that  has  been  late 

(  month 

times  this:    S  term 

^  week 

By  seeing  that  he  is  punctual  in  the  future,  you  will  oblige, 
Respectfully, 

Teacher. 

Please  sign  and  return  to 

William  J.  Morrison,  Principal. 


s 

Public  School  No.  73, 

Brooklyn 19 

Mr 

Dear  Sir  or  Madam: 

It  is  a  matter  of  much  regret  that  you  must  be  informed  of 

the  continued  and  gross  misconduct  of  your  child   

in  the  ....  grade does  not  respond  to  suggestions 

and  mild  treatment,  consequently  more  rigorous  methods  must 

be  employed.    As is  on  the  verge  of  suspension, 

will  you  kindly  call  at  the  school  to  consult  with  the  principal 
before  this  extreme  step  becomes  necessary? 

Sincerely  believing  that  you  do  not  approve  of,  or  uphold 

in   behavior,  and  that  you  will  cooperate 

with  us  in  matters  pertaining  to  the  welfare  of  your  chUd,  I  am. 
Yours  respectfully, 

Principal. 

Kindly  sign  and  return. 


BLANK   FORMS  331 

6 

Concordia,  Iowa, 19 

M 


My  dear 

We  regret  to  inform  you  that  your , 

has  grown  poorer  instead  of  better  in  ... .  work  during  the  past 
,  and  also  that  


We  feel  sure  that  you  regret  this  as  much  as  we,  and  that  you 
will  cooperate  with  us  in  locating  the  trouble  and  correcting 
this  condition  of  affairs.    Please  come  at  your  earliest  con- 
venience to  the  office  of  the  principal  for  a  conference. 
Very  sincerely  yours, 


Teacher. 
.  Principal. 


Room 


19. 


offended  today  by 

I  dealt  with  the  offense  by 


is. . . .  restored  to  full  relations  with  the  school. 

Teacher. 


8 

Concordia,  Iowa, 19 


M. 


My  dear 

Today   your    ,    ,   was   guilty   of 


and  was  punished  by 


Principal. 


332  APPENDIX  III 

For  Use  in  High  School  Administration 

1 

Concordia  High  School 

i9--. 

has  done  very  poor  work  in  my  class  for  the 

past I  recommend  that  ....  be  excused  from  all 

work  outside  regular  class  exercises  until  the  work  lost  has  been 
made  up  and  ....  daily  class  recitations  improve. 

Teacher. 

(Class  in ) 

2 

Concordia  High  School 

19.... 

This  is  to  certify  that has  done  good  work  in  my 

class  in for  the  past  two  weeks,  and  may  there- 
fore play  on  the team. 

Teacher. 

3 

Concordia  High  School 

19 ••■• 

This  is  to  certify  that  the  record  of   

both  in  scholarship  and  behavior,  has  been  such  during  the  past 

that  ....  is  recommended  for  nomination  for 

the  honor  of  being 

Principal. 

4 

Excuse  Slip 

191- •• 

Name 

Time 

Cause 

Came  home  at 

Parent. 

{To  he  filled  out  by  pupil  and  later  signed  and  returned  by  parent.) 


BLANK   FORMS  333 

6 

Los  Angeles  City  High  School  District 
Blank  for  Lost  Articles  or  Books 

Classroom Date 

Name 

Book  or  Article 

Lost  when 

Lost  where 

If  book,  private  mark 

If  article,  description 

Found  when 

6 

No Los  Angeles,  Cal., 191 . . . 

Finder's  Receipt 
L.  A.  P.  H.  S}  Custodian  Committee 

Received  from C.  R the  following 

lost  articles,  to  be  returned  to  finder  if  not  called  for  in 

days: 

Date  of  disposal Custodian  Committee,  L.A.P.H.S. 

Sig.  of  Finder By 

Committeeman 

7 

Permit,  General 

Los  Angeles,  Cal., 191 . . . 

of    Classroom    has 

permission  to   


8 

Office  Summons 

191 

Classroom  No 

Please  send  the  following  to  me  at  vacant  periods: 


'Los  Angeles  Polytechnic  High  School. 


334  APPENDIX  III 

9 

High  School  Office  Notice  to  Class  Teacher 
has  reported 


Time. 
Date. 


10 

Polytechnic  High  School 
Ofl&ce  Excuse 

detained  in  the  office 

.  .period. 


Time. 
Date. 


11 

Office  Request  for  Pupil's  Record 

191 •• 


Please  give  me record  of  the  following: 


12 

Notice  to  Delinquents 

191-.* 

Class,  Room 

Please     report     at on in     room 

without  fail. 


Signer's  Teacher:   If  pupil  is  absent,  please  return  this  slip  to 
P.  O.  Box. 


BLANK   FORMS  335 

13 

Self-Government  Card 

Class  of Course 

Called  before Committee  on 191 ... . 

for 

Action  taken 

Reinstated on  condition 

Chairman. 

14 

A  set  of  rubber  stamps  kept  on  the  teacher's  or  principal's 
desk,  by  which  the  appraisal  or  disposal  of  all  ordinary  cases 
may  be  quickly  indicated,  will  help  greatly  in  the  dispatch  of 
school  business.    Among  them  are  these: 

This  work  is  below  the  average  of  the  class. 

Please  sign  and  return,  Teacher. 

Excused  by  Permission 

Unsatisfactory 

Home  Work  Every  Night 

The  above  explanation  is  entirely  satisfactory. 

This  child's  work  has  been  unsatisfactory  for 
some  time.  Unless  there  is  a  decided  improve- 
ment the  pupil  is  not  likely  to  be  promoted  at 
the  end  of  the  term. 

Please  sign  and  return  to 

Teacher} 

*The  value  of  such  notices  can  scarcely  be  overestimated.  One 
standing  complaint  of  parents  is  that  they  are  not  informed  of  the  poor 
work  or  behavior  of  their  children  until  it  is  too  late  to  find  an  effective 
remedy.  The  reason  is  usually  that  the  teacher  is  so  overworked  that 
he  cannot  find  time  to  make  a  visit  at  the  home  or  write  a  note.  The 
frequent  suggestion  of  the  ready  blank,  and  the  ease  with  which  it  may 
be  filled  out  and  sent,  will  help  to  keep  parents  informed  of  the  prog- 
ress of  their  children,  or  the  lack  of  it.  Such  notices  should  as  a  rule 
be  sent  through  the  mail. 


336  APPENDIX  III 

II.  In  Country  School  Systems 

It  is  generally  recognized  that  the  lack  of  adequate  super- 
vision is  perhaps  the  chief  cause  of  the  poor  condition  of  our 
American  country  schools.  The  existing  officers  preside  over 
districts  too  large,  having  often  means  of  transportation  too 
limited,  to  permit  of  really  effective  supervision.  In  many 
places  precedent  for  any  kind  of  real  oversight  is  entirely  want- 
ing. In  others  the  clerical  work  incident  to  the  office  of  county 
superintendent  takes  practically  all  his  time.  New  and  better 
schemes  of  administration  are  being  used  in  some  parts  of 
the  country,  and  additional  officers  are  securing  better  results 
than  were  formerly  possible.  Much,  however,  can  be  done  by 
requiring  more  frequent  and  more  detailed  reports  than  have 
been  given  in  the  past.     Forms  for  such  reports  are  given  below. 

1 

Monthly   Report   of   Order  and   Behavior   in   District 
No.  . . . ,  Clay  County 

General  condition  of  school  order  and  discipline 

No.  of  cases  of  corporal  punishment,  if  any Suspension .... 

Expulsion Cases  referred  to  School  Board 

Report  of  serious  cases  of  school  discipline: 

Name  of  Pupil 

Cause 

Treatment 

Result 

Position  of  Board  with  regard  to  teacher's  authority 

Do  you  want  help  from  the  Superintendent? 

Written  advice,  or  a  personal  visit? 

To  what  do  you  attribute  your  trouble,  if  any  exists? 

19-- 

Teacher. 

Note.  —  Report  additional  cases  of  discipline  in  the  manner 
indicated,  on  the  back  of  this  paper.  Do  not  neglect  to  report 
any  serious  case;  you  will  not  be  considered  a  poor  teacher  for 
trying  to  improve  conditions,  but  for  ignoring  them  or  con- 


BLANK   FORMS  337 

cealing  them.     Write  additional  details  if  they  should  be  re- 
ported. 

Superintendent. 

Such  a  report  as  the  foregoing  will  be  found  helpful  in  ascer- 
taining the  true  condition  of  affairs  in  sections  of  the  country 
where  there  is  known  to  be  much  trouble  with  discipline.  It 
enables  the  supervising  officer  to  locate  specific  cases,  to  give 
his  personal  attention  to  them  if  necessary  while  they  are  still 
recent  oflfenses,  and  to  find  out  where  weak  teachers,  cowardly 
school  boards,  and  communities  of  low  standards  exist.  Where 
disciplinary  trouble  is  not  so  prevalent,  the  following  report, 
sent  immediately  after  the  event,  may  be  more  helpful;  or  this 
report  may  be  used  to  supplement  the  monthly  report,  or  to  give 
notice  of  cases  that  require  immediate  help. 

2 

Report  of  Special  Discipline  in  District  No , 

Clay  County 

Act  which  occasioned  the  trouble 

Name  or  names  of  pupils  implicated 

Method  of  dealing  with  offense 

Result 

Present  status  of  offending  pupil  or  pupils 

Did  you  report  this  case  to  your  school  board? 

What  action,  if  any,  did  they  take? 

Did  you  report  this  case  to  the  parents  of  the  offender? 

Result? 

In  what  way  can  the  Superintendent  help  you? 

Remarks 

Teacher. 

i9--- 

Sometimes  it  is  very  helpful  for  a  county  officer  to  have 
reports  from  the  local  boards,  where  such  exist;  and  this  is 
especially  the  case  where  there  is  a  suspicion  that  the  fault  lies 
with  the  teacher.  In  any  case  it  gives  to  the  supervisor  another 
view  of  the  situation  than  the  teacher's,  and  so  helps  him  to 
know  his  problem  better.    The  following  form  is  intended  for 


338  APPENDIX  III 

occasional  use,  but  could  easily  be  changed  into  a  monthly 
report  where  the  conditions  are  bad  enough  to  warrant  such,  or 
the  boards  energetic  enough  to  send  it. 


Report  of  Special  Discipline  in  District  No.  . . 
Clay  County 

Name  of  teacher  in  this  district 

Length  of  h . . . .  service 

Date  of  present  case  of  discipline 

Name  of  offender  or  offenders 

Nature  of  offense 

Teacher's  treatment  of  offense 

Result 

What  mistake  did  the  teacher  make,  if  any,  and  why?. 


What  is  the  success  of  this  teacher  as  a  disciplinarian? 

Are  there  special  conditions  in  your  district  which  make  disci- 
pline difl&cult? 

What  is  the  past  record  of  the  present  offender? 

Does  the  family  of  the  offender  uphold  him  in  his  conduct? 

What  action  has  the  Board  taken  in  this  case? 

Clerk  of  Board. 

i9--. 

An  annual  report  from  each  district,  in  counties  where  there 
is  little  trouble,  will  enable  a  supervisor  to  ascertain  which  are 
the  weak  or  unfortunate  districts  in  his  territory,  and  perhaps 
also  help  in  indicating  weak  and  strong  teachers.  Such  reports 
tend  also  to  set  a  standard  of  good  behavior,  and  give  a  strong 
incentive  for  its  realization.  If  an  honor  roll  of  schools  in 
which  no  bad  behavior  has  been  reported  during  the  year  be 
established  in  connection  with  the  reports,  the  immediate  in- 
centive will  be  stronger;  but  it  may  also  militate  against  honesty 
in  reporting  trouble,  and  should  be  used  only  after  careful 
consideration  of  conditions  and  needs. 


BLANK   FORMS 


339 


Annual  Report  of  Order  and  Discipline  in  District  No. 
,  Clay  County 


General  Conditions 

Specific  cases  of 
corporal  punishment 

Specific  cases  re- 
ported to  parents 

Specific  cases  re- 
ported to  Board 

Suspensions 

Expulsions 

Greatest  problem 
(with  regard  to  order) 

Attitude  of  Board 

Attitude  of  commu- 
nity 

Efifort  to  arouse  or 
improve  school  spirit 

Effort  to  arouse  or 
improve  community 
spirit 


For  the 
Year 


.19. 


Teacher 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Abnormals,  authority  for ig 

temporary 20 

Absolute  authority,  mode  of 14 

devices  for.  .  .210 

Acquisitiveness 264 

Action,  stimuli  to 36 

Adler,  Felix 7 

Administration    of    high    school 

activities 48 

Adolescence,  guidance  in 34 

rewards  in 24 

ambition  in 51 

Air  in  schoolrooms 129 

Alcohol 157 

Altruism 294 

Analysis  of  motives  for  conduct . . .  295 
of  schoolroom  situations  .  287 

Animals  in  school 148 

"Appropriate"  punishments 185 

Aristotle 86 

Amey,  General  W.  F.  M 35 

Arnold,  Felix 184,  219 

Assignments,    bearing   upon    in- 
terest  229 

Association  and  ambition 51 

Attention 35 

Bad  odors  in  school 148 

Baden-Powell,  Sir  George 31 

Bagley,  W.  C 63,  98,  100,  260 

Baldwin,  J 216 

Beauty  in  school  environment. ...  112 

Boyce,  A.  C 285 

Brownlee,  Jane 60,  215 

Busywork 36 

Ceremony 49 

Character  development 265 

Charter  for  school  city,  reference 

to .63 

Cheating 146 

Civilization 53 


PAGE 

Cocaine 158 

Colgrove,  C.  P 186,  187,  216 

Comfort  in  school 112 

Committee  pupil-government 66 

Community,  influence  of 135 

work  of  teachers.  . .  .257 

Complaint  book 241 

Conduct,    affected   by    constant 

choice 27 

evaluation  of 255 

motivation  of 252 

Consequences,  inunediate  and  de- 
layed  173 

Contagion  of  success 252 

Corporal  punishment 197 

Correlation,  bearing  upon  interest. 2 29 

of  ideals 96 

Crude  manners,  offenses  of 159 

Cultural  ideal 78 

Curriculums,  nature  of 4 

affected  by  hope  of  reward. ...  25 

Democracy  and  discipline 77 

in  high  schools 41 

Detention  after  school 182 

Devotional  exercises 280 

Dexter,  E.  G 128 

Diaz,  Porfirio 31 

Disobedience 126 

Dressier,  F.  B 131 

Drugs 157 

Elson  and  Bachman 242 

Environment,  influence  of in 

Equipment,  bearing  upon  interest. 228 

Examinations 263 

Expiation 165 

Expulsion 196 

Faculty   control   of   self-govern- 
ment  59 

Failure  in  teaching 219 


INDEX 


341 


PAGE 

Fat  children 292 

Fatigue,  false  and  true 226 

Feminization  of  schools 74 

Fighting 137 

Formal  discipline 81 

Francis  W.  Parker  School 277 

Gambling 146 

Gang  loyalty 30,  138 

George,  W.  R 31 

George  Jimior  Republic 63 

German  schools 17 

Good-nature  in  school 114 

Grades 262 

Habit  forming 84,  100 

Hall,  G.  Stanley 141 

Harris,  Leo 246 

Hazing 155 

Helpmg  teachers  with  discipline.  .297 

Heroin 158 

High  schools,  organizations  in 38 

Holmes,  Dr.  O.  W 16 

Horseplay 161 

Ideal  of  order 94,  288 

Imitation,  offenses  of 139,  151 

Immigrant  children 18 

Impudence 160,  240 

Impenetrability  of  attention  and 

interest 35 

Inattention  in  class 239 

Incentives 260 

Indignities,  personal 183 

Individualization  of  punishment . .  169 

Insanitary  school  premises 129 

Interest,  a  basis  for  organization. .  .43 

and  discipline 224 

Doctrine  of 75,  227 

Intrinsic  appeal  of  busywork 37 

Instinct  and  habit 98 

Instincts,  classified 100 

Isolation  as  a  punishment. 55, 187,  236 

James,  William 220,  230 

Jena  Practice  School 239 

John  Crerar  School 61 

Jones,  Henry,  story  of 201 

Joy  in  school  life 117 

Judgment  in  conduct 106 

Juvenile  courts 249 


PAGE 

Kindergarten  children 230 

Kirkpatrick,  E.  A 100 

Lagrange  School 60 

Lapses  in  habit  series 103 

Lawlessness 152 

Leadership  in  high  schools 52 

Leaving  the  room 233 

Library  rules  in  high  schools 239 

Light  in  schoolrooms 129 

Lindsey,  Judge  Ben 249 

Los  Angeles,  30th  Street  School 65 

Polytechnic  High  School.  .65 

Loyalty,  class  or  room 268 

Lying 141 

McKinley  High  School 48 

Malnutrition 134 

Manhattan,  School  No.  3 62 

Marching 283 

Mental  disdpline 84 

Minneapolis  Schoolmasters'  Club.  121 
Misdirected  energy,  offenses  of . . .  121 

Monitors 272 

Morality  and  religion 11 

Morning  exercises 277 

Motivation  of  school  work 37 

of  high  school  work . .  .39 
of  conduct 252,  291 

New  Paltz  Normal  School 62 

Note-writing 122 

Obedience £17 

Obscenity '. .  133,  155 

Offner,  Max 230 

Organizations  in  high  schools 38 

administration  of 48 

membership  in 45 

nature  of 44 

Outcomes  of  discipline 89 

Parochial  schools 216 

Parole  system 251 

Pennants  for  attendance 269 

Perry,  A.  C 7, 98, 198 

Personal  influence,  mode  of 28 

devices  for. ..  .214 

Persecuting  impulse 293 

Perverted  ideals,  offenses  of 135 

Philips,  W.  L 371 


342 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Physical  conditions,  offenses  of. .  .128 

Pillsbury,  W.  B 230 

Play-spirit,  growth  of 119 

Plutarch 34 

Positive  and  negative  discipline ....  92 

Pre-eminence 261 

Privileges 190,  262 

Prize-giving 259 

Profanity 155 

Psychology  of  Wholesome  Reple- 
tion   49 

Punishment,  sureness  of 23 

history  of 164 

motives  for. . . .  165,  168 

for  prevention 167 

for  reformation 168 

Pupil  government 272 

types  of s8 

Race  accomplishment 3 

Race  experience  and  prescription .  .  85 

Ray  system 61 

Record  books  for  pupils 242 

Rein,  Dr.  W 222,  239 

Reminders 250 

Reports  to  parents 189 

Resentful  resistance,  offenses  of . .  .124 

Restitution 194 

Retaliation 165 

Rewards,  hope  of 21 

delayed  and  subjective ....  22,  24 

of  social  conduct 54 

Ridicxile 153,  186 

RUey,  J.  W 246 

Robinson,  Mary  C no 

Roman  worship 27 

Routine  in  school  work 291,  299 

Ruediger,  W.  C 82 

Ruediger  and  Strayer 285 

Rules 244 

Saleilles,  S.  F.  R 169 

Sarcasm 186 

Saturation 184 

School,  functions  of 2,4 

requirements  made  of 5 

and  the  state 6 

and  parents 7 

and  the  child 10 

and  the  church 11 

spirit 77.  113 


PAGE 

School,  strikes 156 

its  benevolent  despotism.  .212 

oflicers 222 

lunch 227 

hierarchy 243 

Self -improvement  of  pupils 264 

Sensationalism 147 

Service  ideal 276 

Shielding  evil-doers 140 

Shyness 52 

Social  aims,  prescription  of 85 

Social  consciousness,  mode  of 53 

Socialization 30 

Spencer,  Herbert i73 

Stealing 144 

Strayer,  G.  D 27s 

Student  scholarship  committee ....  68 

Sully,  James 260 

Supervisor's  duty  in  discipline 286 

Suspension igs 

Tasks  as  punishment i70 

Temperature 128 

Textbook  evil 228 

Thomas,  A.  0 301 

Threats 178 

Thurber,  C.  H 65 

Tobacco 157 

Todd,  A.  J 9 

Toleration 76 

Tompkins,  Arnold 120,  141,  255 

Tongue-lashing 206 

Truancy 126 

Ultiinate  authority,  appeal  to ... .  201 

Uncontrolled  temper 266 

Unity  in  the  school 119 

Unsocial  conduct,  results  of 55 

Untrained   moral  judgment,   of- 
fenses of 135 

Vandalism 124,  160 

Visiting  schools 94 

Walks,  need  of 130 

Warren,  Pa.,  High  School 65 

Whispering 122,  235 

Wholesome  repletion,  mode  of 35 

devices  for 221 

Work,  spirit  of 115 

Worth-while,  inspiration  of  the  . .  .116 


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